^ 


O  \^  CY<iL>v-i. 


THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  ILLINOIS 

LIBRARY 

385 

K6355 

1916 

v.ia 


ENGINEERS*  AND  FIREMEN'S 
HANDBOOK 


THIS  VOLUME  IS  A  PRACTICAL  MANUAL  FOR  ENGINEERS  AND  FIRE- 
MEN  TREATING   OF  THEIR  DUTIES  AND    RESPONSIBILITIES   AND 
THE  DETAILS  NECESSARY  TO  BE  OBSERVED  BYTHEM  IN  THE 
OPERATION    AND     HANDLING    OF    SIMPLE,     COMPOUND 
AND  OIL  BURNING   LOCOMOTIVES,  AND   INCLUDING 
FULL    PROGRESSIVE     EXAMINATIONS     (QUES- 
TIONS AND  ANSWERS)    FOR  THOSE  SEEK- 
ING TO  QUALIFY  AS  LOCOMOTIVE 
ENGINEERS.      PROFUSELY  ILLUS- 
TRATED  WITH    MANY   DRAW- 
INGS   MADE    EXPRESSLY 
FOR  THIS  WORK. 


FORMING    ONE    OF    THE    SERIES    OF   VOLUMES   COMPRISED  IN  THE 
REVISED  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION  O^ 

"Kirkman's  Science  of  Railways" 


NOTE:  The  author  of  ''Tlie  .''eienro  of  Railways"  served  fur  fifty  years  as  a 
railway  offlcer  aiul  employe;  the  last  twenty  years  as  vieepresirlent  of  the  company. 
However,  In  writing  "The  Science  of  Railways."  ami  in  its  many  sul)sequent  editions 
and'' revisions  (to  meet  the  ever  changinj?  conditions  of  tlie  service),  he  and  those 
interested  in  the  publication  of  the  work  have  had  throughout  tlie  active  advice  and 
aid  of  practical  experts  from  every  branch  of  railway  operation — men  who  know, 
who  have  themselves  soh'ed  the  problems  Incident  to  their  particular  line  of  work. 
Tho  books  are,  therefore,  authoritative,  and  as  valuable  to  railway  men  as  standard 
text-books    are    to    lawyers,    doctors,    cirtl    engineers    and    other    representative    men. 


REVISED  AND  ENLARCiED  EDITION   1916 


CHICAGO 

CROPLEY  PHILLIPS  COMPANY 

1917 


* 

COPYRIGHT  BY 

CROPLEV  PHILLIPS  "COMPANY 

1917 

Also  Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London.  England 

All  Rights  Reserved. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction  5 

Chapter  I.  The  Locomotive  the  Key  to  the  Railroad 
World.  Questions  Regarding  Selection,  Trial  and 
Work  of  those  in  Charge.  The  Value  of  Systematic 
Study  and  Careful  Examinations  to  those  who  would 
become    Efficient    Engineers 13 

Chapter  II.    Duties  and  Responsibilities  of  Engineers  and 

Firemen    : 27 

Chapter  III.  Steam  and  its  Application  to  the  Locomo- 
tive          41 

Chapter  IV.  Firing — Combustion  the  Source  of  Energy 
in  the  Locomotive 47 

Chapter  V.     Pointers  for  Firemen 65 

Chapter  VI.     A  Chapter  of  "Don'ts"  for  Engineers  and 

Firemen    139 

Chapter  VII.     The  Locomotive  Superheater 151 

Chapter  VIII.     Valves  and  Valve  Gears 188 

Chapter  IX.     Compound   Locomotives — Introductory 323 

Chapter  X.  Compound  Locomotives — General  Description 
— Comparison  with  Simple  Locomotives 327 

Chapter  XI.  Classes  of  Compound  Locomotives  and  their 
General  Construction — Different  Types 339 

Chapter  XII.  Progressive  Examinations  for  Firemen — 
their  Utility — Questions  and  Answers  in  Detail 497 

Chapter  XIII.     How  Oil  is  Used  for  Fuel  on  Locomotives  613 

Index   667 


.58.'?^08 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  books  that  make  up  the  "Science  of  Rail- 
ways," of  which  this  is  a  part,  have  much  to 
say,  directly  and  indirectly,  about  the  Equip- 
ment and  Train  Service  of  railways.  Both  these 
subjects  bear  directly  on  the  duties  and  respon- 
sibilities of  engineers  and  firemen.  It  is  as  im- 
possible to  afford  a  separate  and  connected 
account  of  such  duties  as  it  is  to  afford  such  an 
account  of  the  duties  of  superintendents  or 
comptrollers.  Railway  service  laps  and  inter- 
laps  in  every  direction,  and  the  engineer  and  fire- 
man to  fully  understand  their  duties  must  also 
understand  the  things  that  are  germane  thereto. 
This  requires  that  they  should  study  railroading 
not  piecemeal,  but  as  a  whole. 

It  w^as  the  impossibility  of  separating  the 
duties  of  particular  departments  of  the  service 
and  describing  them  apart  that  first  constrained 
me  to  take  up  the  subject  as  a  whole.  I  started 
out  to  describe  particular  branches  of  the  serv- 
ice, but  quickly  found  that  their  connection 
with  the  others  was  so  close  as  to  render  a  de- 
scription of  the  whole  necessary.  Thus  I  was 
led  reluctantly  and  contrary  to  my  original  in- 
tention to  take  up  the  subject  in  its  entirety. 

(6) 


6  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

What  I  have  been  compelled  to  do,  others,  who 
seek  to  fully  inform  themselves  in  regard  to  par- 
ticular branches  of  the  service,  will  also  be  com- 
pelled to  do. 

While  there  are  many  engineers  and  firemen 
who  take  this  comprehensive  view  of  the  sub- 
ject, others  believe  their  field  lies  more  apart 
and  that,  therefore,  it  is  susceptible  of  separate 
delineation  and  study.  There  is  much  interest- 
ing and  valuable  literature  extant  on  the  subject 
of  the  duties  of  engineers  and  firemen,  but  for 
the  reason  stated,  it  only  partially' explains  their 
offices.  This  does  not,  however,  lesson  its  value, 
so  far  as  it  goes.     It  is  simply  incomplete. 

Knowledge  of  the  locomotive  and  how  it  is 
operated  is  only  one  of  many  things  engineers 
and  firemen  must  know.  They  must  also  be 
familiar  with  train  regulations,  signals,  methods 
of  dispatching  trains  and  kindred  knowledge. 
Such  things  are  fundamental.  Moreover,  as 
their  duties  bring  them  in  daily  contact  with 
the  equipment,  they  must  know  something  of 
its  construction,  care  and  maintenance.  The 
wider  their  knowledge,  the  greater  the  prob- 
ability that  they  may  some  day  become  depart- 
ment directors  instead  of  operatives  merely. 
Nor  need  their  ambition  be  thus  restricted. 
The  nature  of  their  duties  affords  an  admirable 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  1 

opportunity  for  acquiring  the  knowledge  re- 
quired by  superintendents  and  managers  of 
railroads.  All  that  is  needed  is  that  he  who  sets 
out  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  locomotive 
shall  keep  on  until  he  becomes  acquainted  with 
the  needs  of  other  branches  of  the  .service.  The 
task  is  difficult,  but  not  insurmountable.  The 
knowledge  may  be  acquired  by  experience, 
study,  observation,  inquiry  and  the  thousand 
and  one  devices  ambitious  men  adopt  to  further 
their  ends. 

A  man  who  seeks  merely  to  be  a  fireman,  and 
then  an  engineer,  and  afterward  perhaps,  a  fore- 
man, may  be  satisfied  with  a  mechanical  or  per- 
functory knowledge  of  the  railway  world,  but 
such  knowledge  is  not  sufficient  even  for  this 
limited  field.  However,  he  can  possibly  get  on 
thus  without  scandalizing  the  service,  or  seriously 
jeopardizing  the  interest  of  his  employer,  but  if 
he  expects  to  occupy  a  position  of  greater  power 
and  influence,  he  must  study  railroading  as  a 
whole.  Only  thus  can  he  comprehend  the  spirit 
and  practices  that  animate  the  service,  or  cope 
with  the  many  men  of  talent  who  fill  its  offices. 

To  be  an  officer  of  a  railroad,  or  to  fill  a  posi- 
tion of  responsibility  in  connection  therewith, 
requires  that  the  incumbent  shall  understand  the 
science  of  government.  This  science  is  in  essen- 
tial things  alike  as  regards  public  and  private 


8  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

corporations.  To  know  how  to  govern  a  country 
or  city  well,  is  to  know  how  to  govern  a  great 
railroad  well  with  its  vast  army  of  employes  and 
widely  extended  and  complicated  interests.  The 
man  who  seeks  preferment  in  either  must  under- 
stand how  governments  are  formed  and  how  best 
carried  on  for  the  common  good.  He  must  know 
much  about  the  checks  and  safeguards  that  expe- 
rience proves  to  be  needed  in  ordei  to  secure  a 
strong  and  pure  government.  Such  knowledge, 
as  I  have  said,  constitutes  a  part  of  the  science  of 
railroads,  and  no  man  is  fully  capable  of  being 
an  officer  of  a  railroad  or  of  holding  a  position 
where  he  must  come  in  contact  with  the  public, 
without  possessing  it.  This  feature  of  the  situ- 
ation I  have  sought  to  explain  in  my  books  as 
conscientiously  as  I  have  the  basis  of  rates,  safe 
conduct  of  traffic,  or  the  faithful  handling  of  a 
company's  money,  but  the  information  is  not  to  be 
found  in  any  particular  chapter  or  book.  It  per- 
meates every  part  of  the  service  and  it  is  impos- 
sible to  discuss  any  question  without  more  or  less 
reference  to  it.  It  is  this  fact  which  makes  men 
familiar  with  the  magnitude  and  homogeneous- 
ness  of  the  subject,  so  impatient  of  those  who 
think  that  there  are  departments  and  branches 
of  the  service  that  may  be  considered  apart  from 
the  rest. 

Those  who  work  for  railroads,  no  matter  where, 
are  interested  in  acquiring  knowledge  of  every 
department  of  the  service,  and  this  not  perfunc- 
torily, but  systematically.     Their  personal  inter- 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  9 

ests  not  only  require  that  they  should  possess  this 
knowledge,  but  the  interests  of  their  employer 
as  well.  The  more  the  subject  is  studied,  the 
more  this  truth  will  be  apparent.  I  am  not  so 
presumptuous  as  to  believe  I  have  exhausted  the 
science  of  railways  in  my  books.  If  a  book  could 
be  made  exhaustive,  there  would  never  be  but 
one  written.  The  greatest  value  that  any  book 
possesses  is  the  suggestions  it  affords  the  person 
.who  reads  it.  He  may  find  many  things  upon 
perusing  it,  that  he  did  not  know  before,  or  only 
surmised;  others  again  that  he  had  overlooked. 
He  w^ill  be  refreshed  as  by  a  bath,  even  though 
he  has  only  acquired  a  morsel  of  original  infor- 
mation from  what  he  has  read,  for  the  reason 
tliat  his  knowledge  will  have  been  expanded  by 
the  thoughts  to  which  his  reading  has  given  rise. 
Let  raihvay  men  keep  this  in  mind  in  reading 
books  on  railway  and  other  subjects. 

I  have  sought  to  treat  my  theme  as  fully  as 
circumstances  permitted.  Where  I  do  not  wholly 
enlighten,  I  may  be  pardoned  for  believing  that  I 
have  at  least  pointed  the  way. 

There  are  few  of  the  books  that  make  up  the 
"Science  of  Railways"  that  do  not  contain  mat- 
ter of  more  or  less  general  interest  and  value  to 
those  who  seek  to  be  firemen  and  afterward  engi- 
neers. How^ever,  if  the  latter  position  is  the 
height  of  their  ambition,  then  some  of  the  books 
will  not  possess  as  much  value  as  they  would 
under  other  circumstances,  but  in  every  book 
may  be  found  some  account  of  the  practices  and 

2  vol  12 


10  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

philosophy  of  railroading  with  which  it  is  desir- 
able every  one  should  be  familiar. 

Much  of  the  information  that  books  on  the 
general  subject  of  railroads  contain  is  not  neces- 
sary to  a  fireman  to  enable  him  to  creep  up  to 
the  place  of  engineer,  any  more  than  salt  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  a  potato;  but  he  like 
every  railway  man,  if  lacking  in  the  niceties  of 
his  profession  (that  only  general  knowledge  can 
supply),  will  lack  flavor  and  will  seek  in  vain  to 
reach  the  highest  positions  in  the  service. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  a 
consecutive  and  separate  account  of  the  duties 
of  engineers  and  firemen  is  impossible.  How- 
ever, there  are  particular  duties  imposed  upon 
them  that  may  be  described  apart.  These  I  shall 
embody  here.  While  incomplete,  the  matter  is 
not  the  less  valuable  on  that  account,  as  it  is  re- 
plete with  suggestions.  This  I  may  say  with  the 
greater  freedom,  as  I  am  the  editor,  rather  than 
the  author.  What  I  shall  have  to  say  is  probably 
known  to  accomplished  railroad  .engineers,  but  it 
is  not  kno^\Ti  to  those  less  favored,  and  yet  they 
should  be  familiar  -with  it,  in  order  to  be  able  to 
look  forward  with  confidence  to  preferment  in 
their  calling.  Furthermore,  if  instead  of  treating 
what  I  have  to  say  as  final,  the  student  in  search  of 
knowledge  will  look  upon  it  as  rudimentary  only 
and  supplement  it  mth  acquisitions  of  his  own, 
he  will  not  only  add  greatly  to  his  prospects  as  a 
railway  man  (by  adding  greatly  to  his  value  to 
his  employer),  but  he  will  increase  immeasurably 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  \\ 

his  ability  to  secure  a  position,  if  through  any 
untoward  circumstances,  he  finds  himself  with- 
out employment. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  LOCOMOTIVE  THE  KEY  TO  THE  RAILROAD  WORLD. 
QUESTIONS  REGARDING  SELECTION,  TRIAL  AND 
WORK  OF  THOSE  IN  CHARGE.  THE  VALUE  OF 
SYSTEMATIC  STUDY  AND  CAREFUL  EXAMINATIONS 
TO  THOSE  WHO  WOULD  BECOME  EFFICIENT  ENGI- 
NEERS. 

As  the  engine  is  the  key  of  the  railway  world, 
so  those  who  operate  it  share  in  its  supreme  im- 
portance. While  admirable  in  outline  and  use- 
fulness, it  is  after  all  only  an  aggregation  of 
metal  fashioned  into  many  curious  forms,  but 
dead  and  incomplete  without  the  guidance  of  the 
engineer  and  fireman.  Like  the  world  in  the 
beginning  when  clothed  in  stillness  and  death, 
awaiting  the  light  of  day,  so  the  locomotive 
stands  apart,  cold  and  dead,  but  under  the  in- 
spiring influence  of  the  Engineer  and  Fireman 
pulsates  Avith  life,  forming  not  only  a  magnifi- 
cent picture  in  itself,  but  one  of  the  most  useful 
implements  ever  designed  by  men  for  the  use  of 
men. 

The  locomotive  is  still  in  a  state  of  evolution, 
and,  sympathetically,  those  round  about  it  are 
changing  not  only  in  the  particulars  of  their 
duties,  but  in  their  aspirations  and  lives.  The 
engineers  and  firemen  of  early  days  bore  little 
resemblance  to  their  brothers    of    the  present 

(13) 


14  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

period.  The  latter  have  not  only  personally 
acquired  greater  skill,  but  they  possess  also  the 
accumulated  experience  of  those  who  have  gone 
before  them.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
the  fireman  of  to-day,  even  if  a  novice,  is  much 
superior  in  capacity  to  the  engineers  who  had 
charge  for  a  long  time  after  railways  were  first 
operated.  The  first  enginemen  were  by  trade, 
blacksmiths  and  mechanics,  who  understood 
something  about  metals  and  machinery,  but 
were  ignorant  of  the  uses  of  steam  or  the  future 
possibilities  of  the  locomotive.  It  was  necessary 
to  train  men  for  the  position.  This  process  has 
been  going  on  with  ever  accelerated  speed  from 
the  first  day  up  to  the  present  moment.  There 
is  no  end  to  the  road.  It  grows  wider  and  the 
horizon  expands  with  each  advancing  step. 

The  firemen  and  engineers  of  railways  consti- 
tute as  highly  a  trained  class  of  men  as  there  are 
connected  with  the  technical  world  of  trade  at 
the  present  time.  Their  knowledge  and  useful- 
ness will  increase  with  time  and  further  expe- 
rience. It  is  only  reasonable  to  believe  this  be- 
cause we  know  that  possession  of  knowledge  only 
intensifies  the  desires  of  men  in  this  direction. 
Its  acquisition  by  an  ambitious  man  creates  an 
unquenchable  thirst  for  further  light.  His  mind 
expands  with  his  opportunities  in  this  direction 
until  the  vacuum  of  the  brain  appears  so  much 
greater  than  its  filled  space  that  the  wisest  man 
becomes  despondent  at  the  meagerness  and  super- 
ficiality of  his  knowledge. 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  15 

It  is  only  the  supremely  ignorant  man  whose 
mind  is  at  rest. 

With  each  passing  day,  knowledge  becomes 
more  and  more  a  necessity  to  men.  The  advan- 
tages the  informed  man  has  over  his  ignorant 
brother,  are  so  great  that  the  latter  must  likewise 
acquire  knowledge  or  confine  himself  to  the  com- 
mon drudgeries  of  life.  This  is  what  competition 
is  doing,  and  it  is  thus  showing  itself  as  useful  in 
this  department  of  life  as  it  has  in  the  production 
and  interchange  of  material  commodities. 

Men  have  no  inherent  love  of  study,  but  the 
taste  grows,  and  if  one  man  studies,  all  must 
eventually  study  or  be  outstripped  in  the  race  of 
life.  Thus  the  ambition  of  a  particular  man 
starts  the  whole  forward.  When  men  acquire  a 
desire  to  learn,  moreover,  their  ingenuity  sup- 
plements the  efforts  of  others,  and  in  this  way 
accomplishes  a  double  purpose,  at  once  encour- 
aging and  beneficent. 

As  the  driftwood  carried  to  the  coast  of  Spain 
suggested  to  Columbus  the  unknown  world  of 
America,  so  the  questions  and  answers  embodied 
further  on  herein  will  suggest  a  host  of  collateral 
ideas  of  great  value  both  to  the  student  and  his 
employer.  These  inquiries  measurably  dispel 
the  darkness,  but  do  not  fully  light  up  the  hori- 
zon. And  so  it  is  generally  in  reference  to 
books.  A  great  good  that  they  serve  is  the 
thoughts  they  give  rise  to  in  the  minds  of 
readers.  The  capillary  attraction  of  the  human 
mind  thus  exemplified,  if  I  may  thus  character- 


16  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

ize  it,  has  this  attractive  feature,  that  above  the 
water  line  of  acquired  knowledge  it  ever  attracts 
to  itself,  all  that  is  necessary  to  nourish  or  ex- 
pand it.  It  is  this  feature  of  the  brain  reaching 
beyond  original  limits,  that  has  made  man  the 
arbiter  of  the  world,  and  that  makes  all  things  an 
open  book  to  him.  The  only  difficult  thing  in  his 
case  is  to  get  his  mind  in  motion;  once  under 
way,  it  never  ceases  its  inquiries  until  death 
silences  its  action. 


In  the  case  of  engineers  and  firemen  many 
methods  have  been  devised  for  adding  to  their 
knowledge  so  that  they  may  better  serve  them- 
selves and  the  great  industries  with  which  they 
are  connected.  In  some  of  the  old  countries  of 
Europe,  and  particularly  in  France,  technical 
schools  have  been  established  near  the  great 
shops  by  railroad  companies,  so  that  the  children 
of  employes  may  early  in  life  be  instructed  in  the 
trade  they  design  following,  and  this  under  the 
immediate  eye  of  their  father.  Thus,  as  they 
grow  up,  they  associate  themselves  with  him  and 
afterward,  when  he  is  too  old  to  work,  succeed 
him  in  his  calling.  In  this  way,  the  child  is 
brought  at  the  most  receptive  period  of  its  life 
into  direct  contact  with  the  things  that  are  after- 
ward to  occupy  its  mind  exclusively.  The 
advantage  of  this  cannot  be  overestimated,  for 
we  all  know  that  there  is  a  particular  period  in 
life  that  is  illuminated  more  brightly  than  any 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  17 

other,  when  what  we  learn  we  do  not  forget  nor 
undervalue.  This  period,  to  a  great  extent, 
forms  the  groundwork  of  every  man's  life.  Con- 
sequentl}',  if  during  such  period  light  :s  thrown 
on  the  work  that  is  afterward  to  occupy  him,  it 
exceeds  in  value  knowledge  acquired  at  any  other 
period.  For  this  reason,  the  benevolent  inten- 
tions of  the  corporations  in  providing  schools  for 
the  children  of  employes,  will,  it  is  reasonable  to 
believe,  be  followed  by  the  best  possible  results 
to  themselves.  However,  the  schools  are  not 
intended  for  the  children  of  firemen  and  engi- 
neers alone,  but  for  all  employes  engaged  about 
the  shops. 

Usually  the  effort  to  educate  men  for  engi- 
neers and  firemen  does  not  commence  until  the 
men  have  entered  the  service.  This  is  where  the 
great  bulk  of  the  railroads  of  the  world  take  up 
the  work  of  instruction.  The  method  they  fol- 
low in  carrying  out  their  object  is  as  diversified 
as  it  is  in  other  things  connected  with  the  ser- 
vice. 

Formerly,  applicants  were  put  on  the  locomo- 
tive, and  told  to  go  to  work,  their  preparatory 
instruction  being  of  the  simplest  possible  kind. 
In  other  cases,  the  fireman  is  compelled  to  serve 
a  brief  apprenticeship  in  the  roundhouse.  In 
still  other  cases,  the  preparatory  period  is  more 
extended  and  the  labor  prolonged.  Some  com- 
panies go  so  far  as  to  require  a  man  who  seeks 
to  become  a  fireman  to  commence  emptying 
clinker  pits,  cleaning  and  wiping  engines,  and 


18  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

performing  such  mechanical  duties  in  connec- 
tion with  the  locomotive  as  occasion  requires. 
If  he  shows  adaptability  and  industry,  he  is  after 
a  while  given  an  opportunity  by  being  put  on 
the  Extra  Firemen  list.  Here  his  action  is  care- 
fully scrutinized.  If  he  meets  just  expectation, 
he  is  in  due  course  made  a  regular  fireman,  the 
assistant  and  second  self  of  the  engineer.  Here, 
while  he  has  his  own  work  to  do,  and  plenty  of 
it,  he  has  an  opportunity  to  familiarize  himself 
with  the  work  of  the  engineer.  The  facility  with 
which  he  does  this,  will  depend  upon  his  ability 
to  learn  and  his  desire  to  get  on  in  the  world, 
but  assuming  that  he,  not  less  than  his  older 
brother  the  engineer,  is  animated  by  an  acute 
intelligence  and  a  laudable  ambition,  he  must 
also  have,  like  the  latter,  good  health,  a  strong 
body,  and  be  free  from  intemperate  habits. 
These  latter  qualities  are  ^more  necessary  to 
those  connected  with  locomotives  than  to  others 
in  the  service,  although  they  are  necessary  to 
every  man  who  expects  to  achieve  success  in  life. 

It  goes  without  saying,  that  every  man  who 
seeks  to  be  a  fireman,  or  who  expects  to  become 
an  engineer,  must  have  a  good  character. 

The  practice  of  examining  into  the  qualifica- 
tions of  applicants  before  hiring  them  grows  in 
popular  practice  every  year.  Men  are  scrutin- 
ized more  carefully  than  formerly,  and  once  hav- 
ing entered  the  service,  greater  intelligence  is 
exercised  in  ascertaining  their  capacity  and  use- 
fulness.   This  is  especially  true  of  those  branches 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  EXGIXEER.  ig 

of  the  service  where  technical  skill  is  required 
and  perfect  trustworthiness  needed.  In  the  early 
days  it  was  suflBcient  that  an  applicant  for  the 
place  of  fireman  was  able  to  perform  the  work, 
which,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances, 
is  very  severe.  Afterward,  as  experience  taught 
the  necessity  of  it,  railroad  companies  began  ta 
inquire  into  the  antecedents  of  aspirants.  By  and 
by  they  got  to  inquiring  about  their  habits,  but 
railroads  had  been  operated  in  America  sixty 
years  before  it  occurred  to  them  to  test  the  men- 
tal capacity  and  disposition  of  applicants  by  care- 
ful examinations.  As  this  could  not  very  well 
be  done  before  applicants  entered  the  service,  it 
had  to  be  done  afterward.  It  took,  in  a  general 
way,  the  shape  of  examinations  such  as  charac- 
terize those  of  students  of  law  and  medicine. 
Meanwhile,  the  general  trustworthiness  of  the 
employe  was  scrutinized  and  his  mode  of  life, 
morals,  temperament,  steadfastness  and  general 
fidelity  to  duty  carefully  studied.  If  deficient  in 
these  latter  respects,  intellectual  and  physical 
endowments  were  not  sufficient  to  outweigh 
objections.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  possessed 
all  the  moral  qualities,  and  yet  was  deficient 
mentally  and  physically,  life  was  not  considered 
as  affording  good  material  for  a  fireman,  and, 
prospectively,  an  engineer.  Accordingly,  if  dur- 
ing the  probationary  period  he  broke  down,  or 
failed  to  answer  the  requirements  of  the  service, 
he  was  told  to  go  his  way  and  in  some  field  where 
his  capabilities  would  be  sufficient  for  the  occa- 


20  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

sion  fix  his  life  occupation.  This,  instead  of  being 
a  hardship  or  injustice,  has  been  found  to  be  a 
kindness  to  applicants,  because  it  anticipates 
subsequent  failure  and  saves  them  the  waste  of 
time  and  mortification  that  would  otherwise 
ensue. 

It  also  saves  the  company,  and  incidentally  the 
public,  from  the  mishaps  that  attend  the  service 
of  men  inferior  in  mental  and  moral  qualities.  It 
not  only  enables  the  employer  to  promptly 
separate  the  capable  from  the  incapable,  but 
throws  around  the  general  public  a  measure  of 
safety  that  carriers  are  always  bound  to  con- 
sider. ^ 

In  order  to  pass  the  examinations,  careful  study 
and  preparation,  and  experience  as  well,  are 
required.  Applicants  must  at  least  have  a  good 
common  scliool  education,  because  this  is  required 
of  engineers.  Once  having  entered  the  service  it 
is  manifest  that  the  efficiency  of  the  incumbent 
may  be  greatly  heightened  by  requiring  him  to 
commence  at  once  systematically  to  study  the 
problems  of  the  business  with  which  he  is  identi- 
fied, and  not  solely,  be  it  remembered,  with  a 
view  of  performing  his  present  duties  properly, 
but  with  the  further  view  of  his  being  promoted 
to  the  responsible  position  of  engineer,  at  a  given 
time,  or  thereafter  when  opportunity  occurs. 
Methods  of  procedure  vary  on  different  roads, 
according  to  men's  views  of  the  subject.  Some 
roads  do  not  make  any  examinations  at  all,  but 
the  tendency  is  more  and  more  in  that  direction 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  21 

as  their  value  becomes  more  and  more  apparent. 
The  system  which  is  elucidated  further  on,  and 
which  meets  with  the  approval  of  some  of  the 
most  experienced  and  talented  Master  Mechanics 
and  Superintendents  of  Motive  Power  in  the 
world,  contemplates  a  careful  and  systematic 
course  of  study.  First,  however,  the  habits  and 
antecedents  of  applicants  are  carefully  inquired 
into,  as  I  have  intimated.  Once  the  applicants 
have  passed  this  ordeal,  the  full  confidence  of 
the  company  is  accorded  them  and  every  facility 
afforded  them  to  pursue  the-r  inquiries  and  stud- 
ies so  as  to  fit  themselves  for  present  and  future 
work.  Every  official  of  the  machinery  depart- 
ment holds  himself  ready  to  answer  questions  or 
respond  in  other  directions  so  far  as  it  may  be 
proper  to  aid  applicants  in  this  way. 

After  the  applicant  for  the  position  of  fireman 
has  passed  through  the  preliminary  stages,  what- 
ever they  may  be,  he  is  given  a  series  of  question? 
bearing  directly  on  his  future  duties  and  respon- 
sibilities as  an  engineer.  These  he  is  expected  to 
carefully  study,  and  at  the  end  of  the  time  desig- 
nated, go  before  the  master  mechanic  or  other 
authorized  officer  and  answer  them  categorically, 
with  such  other  questions  of  an  incidental  nature, 
as  are  pertinent  to  the  occasion.  However,  the 
list  of  questions  given  him  and  the  answers 
thereto  constitute  the  examination  in  the  main. 

Having  passed  the  first  examination  success- 
fully, he  is  furnished  a  further  list  of  questions  he 
will  be  expected  to  answer.    This  constitutes  the 


22  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

second  examination.  Following  tliis  he  is  fur- 
nished the  interrogatories  which  close  the  course 
of  study. 

In  regard  to  the  last  examination,  no  one  is  ever 
sent  for  to  take  it,  whom  the  master  mechanic 
above  him  is  not  willing  to  accept  as  an  engineer 
provided  he  successfully  passes  it.  Another  con- 
dition and  a  very  proper  one  is  that  men  sent  for- 
ward for  this  examination  shall  be  in  their  order 
of  service,  other  things  being  equal.  The  final 
examination,  which  is  so  important,  is  usually 
conducted  by  a  board  appointed  for  the  purpose. 
This  insures  impartiality  and  thoroughness, 
though  the  same  thing  can,  it  is  apparent,  be 
secured  by  an  examination  made  by  the  master 
mechanic  and  his  associates. 

All  the  examinations  having  been  passed  and 
the  applicant's  work  meanwhile  having  proven 
satisfactory,  he  is  ready  to  take  charge  of  a  loco- 
motive— is  an  engineer  in  fact,  ready  to  fill  the 
first  position  of  the  .kind  that  offers.  This  is  the 
goal  he  has  sought.    Such  is  the  procedure.* 

D-iiferent  roads  vary  the  details.  Its  merit  is 
that  it  affords  a  course  of  study,  which,  with  the 
practical  experience  of  the  fireman  meanwhile. 


*It  will  not  be  forgotten,  in  this  connection,  that  the  appli- 
cant has  long  before  this  demonstrated  his  moral  and  physical 
fitness  for  the  position  of  engineer.  Sometimes  the  physical 
examination  is  conducted  by  the  machinery  department,  and 
at  other  times  by  the  surgical  department  of  the  railroad.  As 
■will  be  noticed  farther  on,  each  applicant  before  being  passed 
is  examined  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  whether  he  is  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  time  table,  or  not;  also  with  the  signals.   The 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  23 

makes  of  him  a  trustworthy  engineer.  This  is 
what  every  fireman  strives  for  and  what  his  em- 
ployer requires  of  him,  for  it  is  thus  engineers 
are  made. 

If  during  the  progress  of  the  examinations  can- 
didates are  unable  to  pass  or  answer  the  questions, 
it  is  generally  thought  well  to  extend  the  time  a 
reasonable  period. 

If  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  allotted  the 
applicant  is  unable  to  pass,  then  the  expediency 
of  his  seeking  other  employment  naturally  sug- 
gests itself,  and  this  last  for  two  reasons,  as  I 
have  already  intimated:  First,  that  the  service 
may  not  be  clogged  by  .men  who  cannot  ulti- 
mately be  promoted;  and  second,  that  applicants 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  waste  their  time  upon 
work  not  destined  to  be  of  lasting  advantage  to 
them.  And  in  this  connection  it  is  not  considered 
too  much  by  those  versed  in  such  matters  that 
applicants  shall  answer  satisfactorily,  both  in 
writing  and  orally,  eighty  per  cent  of  the  ques- 
tions asked  them  in  each  of  the  examinations. 

And  in  regard  to  applicants,  every  assistance 

examinations  in  regard  to  these  last  are  sometimes  conducted 
by  the  machinery  department,  but  more  frequently,  perhaps, 
by  the  operating  department.  Upon  many  lines,  the  superin- 
tendent is  not  satisfied  until  he  personally  ascertains  that 
those  taking  charge  of  engines  are  familiar  with  the  rules, 
familiar  with  the  time  table,  and  familiar  with  the  signals. 
The  machinery  department  looks  especially  to  the  technical 
fitness  of  those  in  charge  of  locomotives:  the  operating  depart- 
ment requires  in  addition  to  this,  perfect  familiarity  with  the 
the  rules  governing  the  movement  of  engines  and  trains  oTer 
the  road. 


24  DUTIES  AXD  RESPONSIBILITIES 

possible  is  rendered  them,  as  already  intimated, 
and  they  are  at  liberty  to  go  to  master  mechanics, 
foremen  and  others  for  information  in  regard  to 
those  things  they  do  not  fully  understand. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  in  no 
sense  will  the  course  of  study  be  forestalled  by  the 
questions  that  are  propounded  and  the  answers 
thereto  that  are  contained  herein.  Both  the  ques- 
tions and  the  answers  applicants  will  find  it  use- 
ful to  critically  study,  as  students  pursue  their 
studies  at  universities;  but  they  must  not  only 
know  the  correct  answers  to  the  various  inter- 
rogatories (because  every  engineer  must  under- 
stand them),  but  must  Understand  their  purport, 
so  that  they  can  reply  to  each  question  in  their 
o^\^l  language  and  according  to  their  understand- 
ing of  it.  They  cannot  use  the  answers  embraced 
herein — these  are  intended  to  be  merely  instruc- 
tive. They  must  frame  answers  for  themselves. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that,  while  the  assistance  this 
Manual  affords  will  save  them  much  inconven- 
ience and  many  inquiries,  it  will  not  save  them 
from  the  necessity  of  studying  and  framing  an 
answer  of  their  own  to  each  inquiry  that  the 
examinations  contain. 

Parallel  with  the  examinations,  and  along  the 
same  lines,  it  is  a  growing  practice  on  many  well 
managed  railroads  to  maintain  schools  of  instruc- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  teaching  train  men,  and 
particularly  engineers  and  firemen,  in  regard  to 
the  construction,  use  and  maintenance  of  the  air- 
brake, steam-heating  apparatus,  use  of  gas  and 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  25 

electricity  for  lighting,  and  other  implements  of 
an  intricate  or  scientific  nature  that  are  used  on 
trains.  The  expense  of  this  systematic  course  of 
instruction  is  more  than  offset  by  the  increased 
efficiency  of  those  thus  instructed.  The  efforts  of 
railway  companies  in  this  direction  are  everywhere 
actively  seconded  by  their  employes,  as  it  adds  to 
their  usefulness  and  renders  more  certain  their 
promotion,  or  if  not  promotion,  then  successful 
competition  in  the  strife  for  place  and  its  reten- 
tion. Accurate  and  extended  knowledge  of  their 
duties,  aside  from  its  present  value,  cannot,  it  is 
also  apparent,  but  be  of  the  greatest  possible  use 
to  those  who  possess  it,  should  they,  through  the 
cutting  down  of  a  force  or  otherwise,  find  it  nec- 
essary to  seek  employment  elsewhere. 

The  examination  of  firemen  and  engineers  has 
been  disregarded  on  many  roads,  but  it  needs 
little  discernment  to  see  that  this  state  of  affairs 
cannot  continue  always.  Companies  lacking  this 
element  of  strength  will  not  be  able  in  the  long 
run  to  make  a  showing  as  against  companies 
whose  force  throughout  has  been  carefully 
instructed  in  technical  knowledge  of  the  highest 
order  in  regard  to  their  duties.  The  omissions 
and  mistakes  of  the  inefficient  and  the  scandals 
they  will  create,  to  say  nothing  of  the  extra 
expense  such  men  entail,  will  compel  the  compa- 
nies employing  them  to  adopt  a  more  compre- 
hensive plan  of  selection  and  instruction,  first 
with  a  view  of  preventing  inefficient  men  from 
entering  their  service,  or  in  case  they  have  such, 


?6       '  DUTIES  AND  RE8PUNSIBILITIEH 

to  weed  them  out  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  event 
they  prove  to  be  incompetent.  In  making  these 
examinations  the  railroads  will  only  forestall  the 
act  of  the  state,  for  it  is  only  a  question  of  time, 
and  a  short  time  at  that,  when  firemen  and  engi- 
neers will  be  compelled  to  go  before  a  State 
Board  for  examination  as  to  their  fitness,  the 
same  as  steamboat  engineers  are  required  to  do, 
unless  the  railroad  companies  forestall  such 
action  by  themselves  making  the  examination. 

The  questions  that  it  is  proper  to  propound  to 
applicants  for  the  position  of  engineer  are  many 
and  intricate.  The  answer  to  each  question,  it 
will  be  observed,  is  of  a  nature  to  familiarize  the 
applicant  with  his  work  and  to  make  him  of 
greater  present  usefulness,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  future.  The  sooner,  therefore,  the  applicant 
familiarizes  himself  with  his  present  and  pro- 
spective duties  the  better  for  him  and  his  em- 
ployer. The  quality  of  service  that  the  fireman 
renders  while  fitting  himself  for  promotion,  also 
operates  for  or  against  him  finally.  His  work 
during  this  period  is  compared  with  that  of 
others,  as  is  also'  the  care  arid  intelligence  he 
exercises  in  the  use  of  oil,  fuel  and  other  sup- 
plies. 

The  position  of  fireman,  it  is  proper  to  say,  is 
not  only  one  exacting  hard  work,  but  consider- 
able knowledge  of  detail,  so  that  he  has  an 
opportunity  to  show  fitness  in  this  respect,  which 
is  all-important  in  the  positions  that  he  aspires 
to  fill. 


CHAPTER   II. 

DUTIES    AND    RESPONSIBILITIES    OF    ENGINEERS    AND 
FIREMEN. 

The  examinations  set  forth  in  this  book  with 
what  follows,  prepared  with  a  view  to  ascertain- 
ing the  fitness  of  firemen  to  become  engineers, 
treat  of  things  that  it  is  desirable  engineers 
should  know — should  have  at  their  fingers'  ends 
— in  order  to  fill  their  places  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. If  they  are  not  familiar  with  them  they 
should  lose  no  time  in  becoming  so.  They  are 
primary  in  their  nature.* 

The  vast  resources  at  the  engineer's  disposal, 
the  result  of  experience,  while  much  of  it  may  be 
particularized  in  print,  much  of  it  cannot  be. 
The  beginner  does  not  possess  this  fund  of  infor- 
mation and  it  is  not  expected  of  him.     He  is, 

♦While  we  must  believe  that  it  is  clesirable  that  the  engi- 
neer should  not  only  understand  his  own  duties  perfectly,  but 
those  of  the  fireman  as  well,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  this 
universality  of  knowledge  is  not  possessed  by  all  engineers. 
This  renders  manuals  all  the  more  necessary.  One  reason  why 
engineers  do  not  possess  the  knowledge  in  question  is  that 
methods  change  after  they  cease  to  be  firemen;  thus  we  will  say, 
the  kind  of  fuel  may  have  changed,  from  wood  to  coal.  What- 
ever the  occasion  of  the  lack  of  knowledge,  the  lack  exists  and 
is  recognized  by  railroad  companies  and  excused  becatrse 
unavoidable,  but  in  so  far  as  engineers  are  deficient  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  duties  of  firemen,  manuals  that  throw  light 
on  the  duties  of  the  fireman  are  not  only  of  value  to  the  latter 
but  to  the  engineer  as  well. 

(27) 


28  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

however,  expected  to  attain  it  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible. If  he  is  ambitious  and  adaptable  he  will 
soon  acquire  it.  The  time  required  will  be 
dependent  upon  the  thought  that  he  gives  the 
subject  and  his  ability  to  learn.  Nothing  con- 
nected with  his  business  will  be  too  small  to 
escape  his  observation;  nothing  too  trifling  if  it 
affords  him  information;  he  will  avail  himself  of 
the  literature,  however  scant,  that  dwells  upon 
his  duties  or  that  has  any  relation  to  the  train 
service;  he  will  observe  and  study  the  actions  of 
those  about  him;  question  with  untiring  zeal,  all 
from  whom  he  can  gain  light.  He  will  not  be 
satisfied  with  the  fact  that  he  has  been  found 
worthy  to  have  charge  of  an  engine;  he  will  not 
stop  until  he  understands  the  anatomy  of  his 
machine  and  its  working  as  the  surgeon  does  that 
of  his  patient. 

After  his  examinations  he  will  go  on  witli  even 
greater  zeal  than  before,  because  his  ambition 
will  by  this  time  have  led  him  to  aspire  to  even 
higher  things.  For  these  and  other  reasons  1 
have  thought  it  well  to  supplement  what  I  have 
said  with  other  things  that  relate  to  the  respon- 
sibilities of  engineers,  and  that  must  be  known 
to  firemen  in  order  to  enable  them  to  run  an 
engine.  What  I  add  is  not  new  nor  especially 
ingenious.  It  is,  however,  useful  to  engineers 
and  a  help  to  others.  I  cannot  claim  to  be  more 
than  the  compiler  and  editor,  for  others  before 
me  have  given  it  expression  in  one  form  or 
another.    It  is  of  the  common  sense  kind,  and 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  29 

partakes,  like  all  corporate  regulations,  of  a  prac- 
tical nature.  1  shall  try  to  avoid  as  much  as  pos- 
sible repeating  anything  concerning  the  duties 
and  responsibilities  of  engineers  already  given.* 

With  this  explanation,  I  proceed  to  enumerate 
such  things  as  occur  to  me  at  this  time  as  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  subject. 

To  begin,  then,  it  may  be  said  of  engineers,  that 
amiability,  quickness  of  perception,  skill  and 
promptness  of  action  mark  those  of  the  highest 
attainments.  The  fireman  who  hopes  to  become 
a  ^ood  engineer  must  possess  similar  character- 
istics. 

It  is  also  a  characteristic  of  such  engineers  that 
they  are  stirred  by  an  ambition  to  excel  in  every 
way. 

While  the  fireman  is  the  subordinate  of  the 
engineer,  the  latter  should  seek  to  further  his 
advancement  by  teaching  him  everything  con- 
nected with  the  construction,  maintenance  and 
operation  of  the  locomotive  that  his  time  and 
capacity  for  learning  permits  of. 

The  fireman  on  his  part  should  show  his  appre- 
ciation of  the  kindness  and  interest  of  the  engi- 
neer by  his  industry,  amiability  and  willingness 
to  obey  orders. 

The  engineer  and  fireman  must  work  together, 
each  recognizing  his  dependence  upon  the  other, 
if  the  best  results  are  to  be  attained. 

*I  shall,  liowever,  be  only  partially  successful  in  this,  but 
while  there  ■\viU  be  move  or  less  goirfg  over  ground  already 
traversed,  it  will  be  in  connection  with  new  ideas  and  a  fuller 
development  of  old  ones. 


80  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

In  reference  to  details,  it  is  becoming  more 
and  more  the  practice  for  the  engineer  to  have 
charge  of  both  injectors.  This  notwithstanding 
the  efficiency  of  the  fireman  in  this  direction.  If, 
however,  the  fireman  miscalculates  in  regard  to 
the  requirements  of  the  engine,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, finds  his  fire  too  low,  and  the  steam  press- 
ure dropping  unduly  because  of  it,  he  must  call 
the  engineer's  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  in- 
jector may  be  shut  off  and  the  supply  of  water 
reduced  so  that  the  pressure  may  be  the  more 
quickly  regained. 

Among  many  other  things  appertaining  to  en- 
gineers, the  study  of  friction  and  the  knowledge 
of  what  is  dependent  thereon  is  essential.  Eco- 
nomical and  effective  use  of  oil  cannot  be  attained 
without  it. 

Aside  from  information  relative  to  more  prac- 
tical things,  the  engineer  and  fireman  must  know 
what  clothing  to  wear,  and  the  food  best  suited 
to  their  requirements. 

They  must  study  particularly  the  best  methods 
of  doing  repair  work:  packing  glands,  cellars  and 
boxes;  removing  brasses;  keying  rods;  setting 
wedges,  and  work  of  a  like  nature  about  the  en- 
gine and  tender. 

No  one  is  qualified,  it  may  be  said,  to  operate 
an  engine,  who  does  not  know  in  advance  what 
to  do  in  every  emergency  of  train  service.  He 
must  be  able  to  act  quickly  and  in  the  light  of 
the  best  practices.  In  the  cases  of  delays  and 
mishaps,  there  is  no  time  to  study  up  questions 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  31 

or  situations.  The  man  in  charge  must  be  able 
to  act  instantlj\  There  are,  in  the  generality  of 
cases,  preferred  methods  of  procedure  in  the  case 
of  break-downs  and  other  mishaps.  With  these 
the  engineer  should  be  familiar.  He  is  also 
expected  to  be  able  to  make  such  repairs  on  the 
road  as  are  possible  under  the  circumstances;  to 
be  able  to  temporarily  adjust  eccentrics  or  the 
front-end  appliances,  set  wedges,  and  disconnect 
the  engine;  to  be  skillful  in  the  treatment  of  hot 
journals  or  bearings,  and  have  an  ear  so  trained 
as  to  be  able  to  detect  and  locate  a  blow  or  a 
pound  that  may  cause  a  break-down. 

The  faculty  of  observation  is  to  be  cultivated 
by  engineers  and  firemen.  Some  men,  without 
apparent  effort,  are  ever  conscious  of  what  is 
going  on  about  them,  while  others  see  nothing. 
It  is  necessary  that  the  defect  of  the  latter  should 
be  corrected  if  they  would  become  valuable  in 
their  places.  Everyone  aml)itious  of  preferment 
should  seek  information  from  the  better  informed 
men  about  them,  and  should  not  l)e  rebuffed  or 
discouraged  if  replies  to  their  questions  are  not 
always  courteous  or  direct.  Practice  and  reading 
will  do  the  rest. 

In  the  operation  of  railroads,  men  engaged  for 
years  on  a  particular  class  of  engine,  have  been 
known  to  remain  in  ignorance  of  other  classes 
about  them.  This  may  be  remedied  by  study 
and  observation.  Certainly  any  engineer  thus 
handicapped  labors  under  great  possible  disad- 
vantages. 


32  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

It  is  a  duty  required  of  engineers,  in  many 
cases,  that  they  shall  reach  the  engine-house 
while  their  engine  is  over  the  pit,  that  they  may 
thus  be  enabled  to  examine  it  from  underneath, 
to  better  advantage.  They  are  also  expected  to 
inspect  the  packing  of  truck  cellars,  see  that  the 
bolts  and  nuts  are  tight,  look  after  the  eccentrics 
and  see  that  the  oil  holes  are  clear  and  oil  cups 
filled.  As  the  engineer  is  responsible  for  the 
fulfillment  of  the  fireman's  duties,  he  is  also 
required  to  see  that  they  are  not  neglected. 

When  the  engineer  does  not  know  in  advance 
the  engine  he  is  to  run  (that  is,  when  the  en- 
gines are  pooled  or  worked  in  common),  he  must, 
upon  taking  charge,  exercise  greater  care  than 
he  would  otherwise,  to  see  that  it  is  provided 
with  necessary  tools,  blocking  and  other  appli- 
ances. He  should  also  examine  the  work-book 
in  such  cases,  to  see  what  repairs  were  last 
reported  as  being  necessary  and  what  has  actually 
been  done.  Parts  that  have  been  repaired  always 
require  more  attention  than  others,  because  of 
the  friction  that  intervenes  in  such  cases.  The 
inspection  of  the  engine  and  tender  by  the  en- 
gineer, it  is  apparent,  is  the  first  thing  to  be  done 
on  taking  charge.  The  work  should  be  system- 
atic and  thorough.  In  those  instances  where  the 
roundhouse  forc^  looks  after  the  packing  of  the 
driving  boxes,  tank  boxes,  truck  cellars,  and  so 
on,  the  engineer  must  still  see  that  the  work  has 
been  done  properly.  Many  engineers  insist  on 
doing  it  themselves,  as  they  feel  greater  confi- 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEEtt.  83 

deuce  that  they  will  get  over  the  road  promptly 
and  without  mishap  than  they  would  if  the  work 
was  performed  by  an  employe  of  the  roundhouse. 
Among  the  further  duties  of  the  engineer  these 
may  be  briefly  summarized:  To  see  that  the 
water  supply  in  the  boiler  is  ample  —  this  he 
does  by  trying  the  gauge  cocks  and  noting  the 
indication  in  the  water  glass;  to  try  the  gauge 
cocks  frequently  wlien  on  the  road,  using  the 
water  glass  as  an  auxiliary  or  indicator  merely; 
to  look  from  time  to  time  into  the  fire-box  for 
leaks,  and  if  the  engine  has  an  arch,  to  see  that 
it  is  in  place;  to  inspect  the  air  pump  and  its 
lubricator,  the  guides,  guide  bolts,  crosshead  and 
piston  rod  packing,  bearings,  rods  and  rod  bolts, 
keys  and  set  screws,  wedges  and  wedge  bolts;  to 
see  in  tilling  oil  cups  that  the  amount  of  oil 
required  indicates  that  there  is  no  stoppage  of 
the  feed  or  oil  hole;  to  examine  the  wheels  and 
flanges  for  In-eaks,  chips  or  cracks,  and  the  driv- 
ing wheel  centers  and  tires  to  see  that  they  are 
not  working  loose;  to  see  that  the  sand  pipes  are 
open,  that  the  headlight  is  filled  and  trimmed 
and  the  reflector  cleaned,  that  the  cinder  hopper 
is  tight  and  that  no  leaks  appear  in  the  front  end; 
to  blow  out  the  steam  heating  pipes  in  winter  lest 
they  be  clogged  with  ice;  to  ring  the  bell  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  before  starting  to  enable 
any  one  who  may  be  working  under  or  about  the 
machine   to   escape;*  to   see   before  leaving  the 

♦Numerous  accidents  to  life  and  limb  have  resulted  from  % 
neglect  to  observe  this  precaution. 


34  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

engine  house  that  the  cylinder  cock  is  opened;  to 
start  the  engine  slowly  and  under  no  circum- 
stances to  slip  the  engine  for  the  purpose  of 
throwing  the  water  out  of  the  cylinders;  in  back- 
ing the  engine  to  the  train,  to  see  that  the  lubri- 
cator is  started  and  all  parts  of  the  engiue  work- 
ing in  good  order;  to  lubricate  all  parts  of  the 
engine  before  starting  a  train;  to  place  the 
reverse  lever  in  starting  in  the  "corner"  and 
open  the  throttle  slowly  and  carefully  so  as  to 
avoid  jerking  the  train  or  slipping  the  wheels;  to 
be  particular  if  the  rails  are  slippery  or  the  load 
requires  it;  to  sand  the  track  before  the  wheels 
begin  to  slip;  to  be  careful  not  to  "catch"  the 
engine  when  slipping  on  sand,  as  it  is  a  severe 
strain  to  the  machinery,  and  pins  and  rods  fre- 
quently break  under  such  circumstances;  to  use 
in  sanding  the  rail  only  so  much  sand  as  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  the  wheels  from  slipping,  as  a  train 
pulls  harder  on  a  sanded  rail;  to  see  when  head- 
way is  attained  that  the  reverse  lever  is  pulled 
back  to  prevent  unnecessary  waste  of  steam  and 
undue  disturbance  of  the  fire  by  too  strong  a 
draft;  in  starting  (and  also  at  other  times)  to  look 
back  and  exchange  such  signals  with  the  rear  end 
ot  the  train  as  may  be  necessary  to  be  assured 
that  the  train  is  intact  and  in  proper  working 
order;  to  use  full  opening  of  the  throttle  except 
where  a  simple  engine  can  do  the  work  required 
with  less  than  one-fourth  cut-off,  in  which 
latter  event  it  is  economical  to  leave  the  cut-off 
at  one-fourth   and  regulate  the   steam   by  the 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  36 

throttle;*  to  see  that  water  is  supplied  the  boilers 
in  as  nearly  a  continuous  flow  as  possible,  to  see 
that  the  water  is,  so  far  as  practicable,  kept  at  a 
uniform  height,  not  losing  sight  of  the  fact  that 
water  in  the  boiler  at  a  high  temperature  (or 
indeed  warm  water  in  the  tank)  represents  so 
much  heat  energy  available  when  the  normal 
capacity  of  the  boiler  is  inadequate  to  supply  the 
demand ;f  to  remember  that  the  time  to  favor  an 
engine  by  reducing  or  entirely  stopping  the  sup- 
ply of  water  to  the  boiler  is  when  moving  rapidly 
towards  an  ascent  or  heavy  grade  ;t  to  see,  when 
approaching  dangerous  places,  drawbridges,  rail- 
road crossings,  interlocking  switches,  yards,  etc., 
that  the  train  is  under  such  control  that  a  stop 
may  be  made,  if  necessary,  before  reaching  the 


♦To  illustrate:  It  ■would  not  be  economical  to  use  one-Half  to 
two-thirds  cut-off  and  throttle  the  steam  pressure  when  the 
work  could  be  done  with  one-fourth  or  one-third  cut-off  with  a 
full  throttle  opening,  while  one-eighth  cut-off  with  full  throttle 
is  less  economical  than  one-fourth  throttled,  due  to  increased 
cylinder  condensation,  where  the  temperature  of  the  cylinder 
has  too  wide  a  range. 

fThe  capacity  of  water  for  storing  heat  is  great,  and  this 
fact  should  be  taken  advantage  of.  When  it  is  not,  engines 
will  too  often  be  found  standing  at  stations  or  descending 
grades  with  light  throttle,  and  with  steam  blowing  off;  or  blow- 
ing off  when  the  water  in  the  tank  is  cold,  or  there  is  but  half  a 
glass  of  water  in  the  boiler.  At  such  times  the  injector  should 
be  at  work  or  the  surplus  heat  should  be  used  to  warm  the 
water  in  the  tank. 

f After  speed  hae  been  reduced  (even  though  the  reTecse 
lever  has  been  dropped  down) ,  the  engina  is  using  a  less  amount 
of  steam  and  the  injector  may  then  be  sterted. 


36  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

danger  point;*  to  see,  in  stopping,  that  steam  is 
shut  off  a  sufficient  distance  to  permit  slowing 
down  easily;  to  see  that  the  link  is  hooked  down 
to  give  the  valves  more  travel  and  keep  the  valve 
seats  in  better  condition.! 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer  to  see  that  the 
air  brake  is  used  with  care,  bearing  in  mind  that 
it  requires  the  nicest  judgment  and  skill  at  all 
times  to  prevent  mishap  or  jarring  of  the  train. 
In  the  event  the  water  in  the  boiler  gets  low 
(through  failure  of  the  pumps,  or  otherwise)  the 
fire  must  be  banked  or  drawn. :J:  It  may  be  neces- 
sary in  some  instances  to  detach  an  engine  and 
proceed  to  the  nearest  station  for  water  when 
the  supply  is  exhausted.  It  can,  however,  some- 
times be  dipped  from  pools  or  streams  along  the 
track,  or,  in  winter,  snow  may  be  shoveled  into 
the  tank  and  melted.  Everything  should  be  done 
in  such  cases  that  is  consistent  with  safety  to 


*The  speed  limit  in  such  cases  is  usually  placed  at  six  miles 
an  hour,  or  as  fast  as  a  man  can  walk  a  short  distance. 

f  This  will  also  prevent  the  raising  of  the  valves  by  com- 
pression from  the  cylinders,  and  where  there  are  no  relief 
valves  on  the  steam  chest,  it  will  partially  prevent  the  draw- 
ing of  the  smoke  and  hot  gases  from  the  front  end  into  the  cyl- 
inder. With  some  engines,  having  very  long  eccentric  blades, 
it  is  unsafe  to  hook  the  links  down  to  the  lowest  point  while 
running  fast,  as  in  such  cases  a  broken  eccentric  strap  might 
follow. 

X"  Banking"  a  fire  usually  means  covering  it  with  fine  coal, 
well  wet  down,  but  sometimes  it  is  advisable  to  cover  with 
ashes  or  sand,  which  will  practically  extinguish  it.  "Drawing'- 
or  "  dumping  "  the  fire  means  knocking  it  through  the  grates 
and  extinguishing  it  entirely. 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  EXOIXEER.  37 

keep  the  engine  alive,  but  it  is  considered  highly 
discreditable  to  "  burn"  an  engine. 

If  the  engine  is  priming  or  foaming,  the  cause 
thereof  must  be  ascertained  and  the  necessary 
remedies  applied.* 

In  the  care  of  the  locomotive  it  must  be  re- 
membered, among  other  things,  that  water  pro- 
jected from  the  smoke  stack  injures  the  paint  on 
both  the  engine  and  cars.  It  looks  bad  moreover. 
In  summer,  after  filling  the  tank  with  cold  water, 
the  heater  should  be  applied  long  enough  to  pre- 
vent the  tank  sweating.  Failure  to  observe  this 
simple  precaution  may  greatly  injure  the  paint 
on  the  tank. 

An  important  duty  of  the  engineer  is  to  see 
that  the  safety  valves  are  regulated  according  to 
the  steam  pressure  allowed  the  engine.  Many 
companies  undertake  to  make  periodical  tests  of 
safety  valves,  gauges  and  air  governors  independ- 
ently of  the  engineer.  It  should  be  a  duty  of 
the  latter,  however,  to  order  a  special  test  made 

*  Priming  is  generuny  caused  by  keeping  the  boiler  too  full 
of  water.  This  can,  as  a  rule,  be  prevented.  Foaming  is  due  to 
foreign  matter  in  the  boiler  and  may  be  relieved  by  a  surface  , 
cock,  or  a  blow-off  cock,  with  which  most  engines  are  supplied. 
If  the  water  used  is  of  poor  quality,  the  tank  may  be  cleansed 
by  flushing  at  the  water  station.  In  cases  of  priming  or  foam- 
ing, the  true  water  level  can  only  be  determined  by  shutting  off 
the  engine  and  letting  the  water  supply  in  the  boiler  settle. 
This  should  be  done  frequently  under  such  circumstances. 
From  an  economical  standpoint,  the  effect  of  working  water 
into  the  cylinders  (aside  from  the  liability  of  knocking  out  a* 
cylinder  head  and  cutting  the  valves)  may  be  appreciated  by 
remembering  that  a  cubic  inch  of  water  (which  is  not  expan- 
sive) will  make  one  cubic  foot  of  steam,  which  is  expansive. 


38  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

whenever  he  may  have  reason  to  believe  there  is 
anything  defective  therewith. 

At  water  and  coaling  stations,  the  engineer 
should  utilize  the  time  to  inspect  the  bearings 
and  running  gear  of  the  engine  and  tender  and 
supply  needed  lubrication. 

It  is  a  duty  of  engineers  to  carefully  inspect 
their  engines  at  terminals,  and  notify  the  oflBcial 
at  the  engine-house  what  work  is  required  to  fit 
them  for  economical  and  effective  use.  Hot  bear- 
ings should  also  be  reported  so  that  they  may  be 
examined  at  the  shop,  and  in  the  event  another 
person  is  put  in  charge  of  the  engine,  that  he  may 
,  be  notified  of  the  same. 

Returns  giving  an  account  of  delays,  overtime, 
accidents,  and  for  other  purposes,  should  be  made 
and  transmitted  to  the  proper  officer  as  soon  after 
arrival  at  the  terminal  station  as  possible. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  no  unnecessary  loss 
of  time  in  communicating  with  engineers  and  fire- 
men when  off  duty,  their  addresses  should  be  left 
with  the  foremen  of  engine-houses,  or  other  desig 
nated  officials. 

In  closing  these  instructions,  it  will  be  proper 
to  again  call  attention  to  the  necessity  of  wise  and 
economical  use  of  tools  and  supplies.  Engineers 
and  firemen  cannot  hope  to  make  satisfactory 
records  otherwise.  Questions  affecting  the  use  of 
tools  and  supplies  grow  more  and  more  important 
every  year  because  measures  for  ascertaining  the 
care  exercised  are  becoming  more  and  more  effect- 
ive each  year.    The  subject  is  therefore,  it  will  be 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ESGINEER.  39 

seen,  one  of  supreme  importance  to  the  emplo3'e 
as  well  as  to  the  employer.* 

•The  foregoing  account  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of 
Engineers  and  Firemen,  while  complete  so  far  as  it  goes,  is 
necessarily  limited,  bui  taken  with  the  examinations  (questions 
and  answers)  and  other  matters  treated  of  in  this  book,  together 
with  other  A-olumes  of  The  Science  of  Kailwavs  Series  relat- 
ing to  the  mechanical  department  of  railways,  will  be  found  to 
cover  all  salient  matters  relating  to  the  duties  of  Engineers  and 
Firemen. 


CHAPTER   Til. 

STEAM    AND     ITS    APPLICATION    TO    THE    LOCOMOTIVE. 

Books  and  lengthy  treatises  have  been  written 
on  the  subject,  but,  stripped  of  padding  and  un- 
necessary words,  thFre  is  very  little  to  be  said  if 
we  omit  other  matters  relating  to  the  locomo- 
tive, including  that  of  the  art  of  firing,  which 
things  I  point  out  elsewhere.  What  I  wish  to 
say  here,  therefore,  relates  simply  to  the  process 
cf  getting  the  locomotive  under  way. 

The  power  that  imparts  motion  to  the  locomo- 
tive is  the  expansive  force  of  steam.  This  force, 
which  has  been  known  for  thousands  of  years, 
was  first  utilized  for  purposes  of  carriage  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

As  stated  elsewhere,  steam  is  the  vapor  of 
water  generated  by  heating  water  above  the  boil- 
ing point.  Hence  steam  is  water  in  a  gaseous 
state  and  is  colorless  and  imperceptible  to  the 
eye.  Saturated  steam  is  steam  either  in  contact 
with  the  water  from  which  it  was  generated  or, 
if  separated  therefrom,  is  kept  at  the  same  tem- 
perature and  pressure.  Wet  steam  is  steam  not 
only  saturated,  but  also  holding  in  suspension 
unevaporated  water  in  the  form  of  minute  drops; 
it  holds  this  water  in  suspension  mechanically, 
due  either  to  the  ebullition  of  the  water  from 
which  it  is  generated  or  else  from  a  rapid  flow 
of  steam  from  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  in  a 
similar  manner  as  the  wind  off  a  rough  body  of 

(41) 


42  STEAM. 

water  is  noticed  to  carry  drops  of  spray.  Dry 
steam  is  the  term  usually  used  for  saturated  steam 
in  distinction  from  wet  steam.  Superheated 
steam  is  steam  removed  from  contact  with  water 
and  heated  above  the  temperature  of  the  water 
from  which  it  was  generated;  it  is  variously  called 
steam-gas,  surcharged  steam,  or  anhydrous  steam. 
Steam  more  closely  resembles  a  perfect  gas  when 
superheated  than  in  any  other  state,  and  it  is  for 
this  reason  that  in  the  locomotive  the  attempt  is 
made  to  superheat  the  steam.  The  boiler  has  a 
dome  from  which,  and  at  quite  a  distance  above 
the  usual  water  level,  reasonably  dry  steam  is 
taken,  passed  through  a  pipe  called  the  "dry  pipe," 
and  branching  in  the  smoke-box  or  front  end 
of  the  locomotive  where  the  escaping  hot  gases 
have  a  tendency  to  superheat  it,  passes  into  the 
two  cylinders  in  which  its  energy  becomes  useful. 

In  steam,  as  in  other  gases,  there  is  a  natural 
repulsion  between  its  various  particles,  each  par- 
ticle trying  to  separate  itself  from  the  others,  so 
that  it  will  fill  the  receptacle  in  which  it  is  placed, 
regardless  of  the  quantity  of  steam  or  size  of  the 
vessel  holding  it.  Its  natural  tendency  is  to 
expand  and  thus  push  out  whatever  resists  expan- 
sion. If  the  steam  is  enclosed  and  superheated, 
therefore,  as  in  the  case  of  a  locomotive  boiler,  the 
natural  tendency  of  its  particles  to  separate  is 
intensified  and  we  thus  obtain,  according  to  its 
quantity  or  volume,  the  steam  pressure  required. 

The  vapor  seen  escaping  from  a  vessel  of  boil- 
ing water,  or  rolling  in  clouds  from  the  exhaust 
pipe  of  a  locomotive,  is  only  a  modification  or 


STEAM.  48 

diluted  agent  of  the  mighty  force  that  does  so 
much  of  the  world's  work.  This  vapor  is  steam 
that  is  resolving  itself  back  into  water;  the 
change  or  condensation  which  is  visible  is  caused 
by  its  contact  with  the  cold  air.  Real  steam,  as 
just  stated,  is  an  invisible  gas,  or,  rather,  a  trans- 
parent fluid,  really  water  changed  into  gas  by 
the  action  of  heat.  Accordingly,  to  make  the 
steam  that  an  engine  requires  water  must  be 
boiled.  To  hasten  this  and  to  lessen  the  cost, 
the  boiler  is  permeated  with  tubes,  or  flues,  con- 
necting with  the  fire-box,  into  which  the  flames 
therefrom  are  drawn,  thus  multiplying  the  heat- 
ing surface  and,  in  so  far  as  this  is  done,  hasten- 
ing the  boiling  of  the  water  and  the  generation 
of  steam.*  As  the  water  is  transformed  into 
steam  it  rises  into  the  dome,  as  will  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  diagram  of  the  locomotive.  From 
there  it  is  released  by  opening  the  throttle  valve 
and  is  thence  conveyed,  through  what  is  known 
as  the  dry  pipe  and  steam  pipes,  through  the 
steam  chest,  thence  to  the  cylinders. 

It  is,  as  is  well  known,  the  expansive  power  of 
the  steam  operating  through  the  mechanism  of 
the  cylinders  that  affords  the  propelling  power 
of  the  locomotive.f 

In  order  to  utilize  this  power  there  is  connected 
with  the  cylinders  a  steam   box  which  is  com- 

*Thi3  as  well  as  other  matters  relatinpf  to  the  construction 
and  appliances  of  locomotives  is  illustrated  and  described  else- 
where herein. 

fFor  diagrams  of  the  various  cylinders  and  the  action  of  the 
steam  therein,  see  various  cuts  contained  in  this  work,  both  of 
the  simple  and  compound  patterns. 


44  STEAM. 

monly  termed  the  steam  chest,  in  which  there  is 
a  slide  valve,  under  which  are  three  ports  or  open- 
ings, one  leading  to  each  end  of  the  cylinder,  and, 
the  third  leading  to  the  atmosphere.  The  slide 
valve  has  a  reciprocating  movement  whereby 
these  ports  are  opened  or  closed.  Motion  to  the 
valve  is  imparted  by  the  revolving  driving-wheel 
axles  in  various  ways,  the  most  common  of  which 
is  by  means  of  eccentrics  and  links  with  connec- 
tions to  the  valve  stems,  as  fully  explained  and 
illustrated  elsewhere  herein.  The  cylinder  is 
fitted  with  a  piston.  This  is  movable  bacK  and 
forth  from  one  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the  other. 
Thus  the  steam  from  the  boiler  is  introduced 
through  the  steam  chest  into  one  end  of  the 
cylinder  and  forces  the  piston  to  the  opposite 
end;  then  the  valve  opens  the  port  at  the  other 
end  of  the  steam  chest  and  allows  the  steam  to 
enter  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  at 
the  same  time  connecting  the  other  side  of  the 
piston  with  the  atmosphere,  thus  allowing  the 
steam  just  used  to  escape;  this  reversal  of  pressure 
upon  it  forces  the  piston  iDack  to  the  place  whence 
it  first  started.  The  escape  to  the  atmosphere 
takes  place  through  the  smokestack  in  order  to 
create  a  greater  draught  on  the  fire.  This  action 
back  and  forth,  at  first  slow,  is  almost  incon- 
ceivably rapid  when  the  locomotive  is  under  full 
headway.  The  piston  described  is  in  its  turn, 
attached  to  a  rod  which  works  through  a  closely 
fitting  opening  in  the  back  end  of  the  cylin- 
der. In  this  way  the  motion  is  carried  out- 
side of  and  beyond  the  cylinder.      To  the  end 


STEAM.  45 

of  the  piston  rod  just  referred  to  is  attached 
the  connecting  rod  which,  in  turn,  is  attached 
to  the  crank  or  revolving  shaft  of  the  driver. 
The  backward  and  forward  motion  of  the 
piston  (called  "reciprocating  motion")  is 
thus  converted  into  a  revolving  or  rotary  motion. 
It  is  observed,  however,  that  the  connecting  rod, 
when  it  has  carried  the  crank  backward  or  for- 
ward as  far  as  it  will  go,  loses  its  reciprocating 
motion  and  the  piston  will  no  longer  produce  a 
rotary  motion.  These  positions  of  the  crank  are 
called  its  dead  points.  In  the  stationary  engine 
this  is  overcome  by  a  fly  wheel,  the  momentum 
of  which  carries  the  crank  past  the  dead  points; 
then,  too,  stationary  engines  of  one  cylinder  are 
not  required  to  frequently  stop  and  start  with  a 
load,  as  are  locomotives.  In  the  case  of  a  loco- 
motive the  obstacle  is  obviated  by  having  two 
cylinders  with  cranks,  placed  at  right  angles  to 
each  other  and  on  the  same  axle;  also,  as  the 
service  demands  the  movement  of  the  locomotive 
in  either  direction,  backward  or  forward,  the 
valve  motion  is  so  constructed  that  the  engine  is 
reversible. 

It  is  thus  that  the  steam  is  generated  and  its 
power  applied.* 

•I  would  in  this  connection  refer  the  reader  to  the  chapter 
on  "Description  of  the  Locomotive"  in  the  volume  I'elating  to 
motive  power. 


45 


STEA^f 


W 


II 


!»        S 


It       ^ 

§».....-§...  .lis^l .|. . . . . . 


4 

IP 

II 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIRING  —  COMBUSTION  THE  SOURCE  OF  ENERGY  IN  THE 
LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  fireman  and  his  art  are  jirime  factors  in 
locomotive  running.  No  matter  how  well  designed 
and  perfectly  constructed  the  engine  may  be,  if 
the  fuel  is  not  manipuhited  according  to  scientific 
rules  desired  results  will  not  be  attained.  It  is 
not  to  be  understood  by  tliis  however  that  the 
fireman  must  be  a  chemist  in  order  to  be  success- 
ful but  it  is  certainly  essential  that  he  should 
know  something  about  the  fire  he  is  tending  so 
that  he  may  treat  it  understandingly  and  bo  ena- 
bled to  extract  from  every  ounce  of  coal  he  throws 
on  to  it  the  energy  that  it  should  yiekl,  thus  re- 
ducing his  own  hibor  to  the  minimum  and  ren- 
dering the  most  efficient  service  possible  to  his 
employer.  Moreover  "a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
combustion,"  says  that  i)ractical  writer  Angus 
Sinchiir,  "teaches  a  man  to  go  straight  to  the 
correct  method  and  the  information  })ossessed  ena- 
bles him  to  deal  intelligently  with  the  numerous 
difficulties  which  are  constantly  arising  owing  to 
inferior  fuel,  obstructed  draft  due  to  various 
causes,  and  to  viciously  designed  fire-boxes  and 
smoke-boxes.  The  nature  of  fuel,  the  composition 
of  the  air  that  fans  the  fire,  the  character  of  the 
gases  fonned  by  the  burning  fuel  and  the  proper 
proportion  of  air  to  fuel  for  producing  the  great- 
est degree  of  heat  are  the  principal  things  to  be 

(47) 


48  FIRING. 

learned  in  the  study  of  laws  relating  to  combus- 
tion." 

Combustion  is  tbe  power  which  transports  all 
trains  on  railroads,  steamboats  on  the  ocean,  and 
turns  99  per  cent  of  the  wheels  of  commerce  in 
all  branches  of  trade.  It  is  the  most  expensive  of 
all  powers  for  commercial  purposes  outside  the 
power  of  vital  action,  and,  in  railroading,  cuts 
the  largest  hole  in  the  bill  of  expense. 

Consider  the  large  amount  of  money  exi^ended 
every  year  by  railroad  companies  for  coal,  oil, 
and  other  fuels,  and  how  much  ot  this  fuel  may 
be  wasted  if  the  men  whose  duty  it  is  to  use  it 
are  careless  and  indifferent  in  its  use.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  when  steam  escapes  at  the 
safety  valves  the  loss  amounts  to  about  one-fourth 
of  a  pound  of  coal  each  second  or  about  a  shovel- 
ful of  coal  per  minute,  or  as  an-  authoritv  has 
graphically  stated  it,  ''It  is  the  same  or  worse 
than  throwing  a  shovelful  of  coal  off  the  engine 
each  minute."* 

To  get  a  proper  understanding  of  the  fuel  econ- 
omy question,  many  things  must  be  considered. 

First,  a  well-designed  engine,  properly  adjusted 
draught  appliances,  with  properly  proportioned 
cylinders ;  second,  a  well-kept  engine ;  third,  prop- 

*By  an  actual  test  on  a  locomotive  at  tbe  Purdue  Univer- 
sity, it  was  found  that,  by  blowing  off  steam  through  the 
safety  valve  for  four  consecutive  minutes,  six  cubic  feet  of 
water,  336  pounds,  was  converted  into  steam  and  blown  away, 
being  at  the  rate  of  84  pounds  of  water  per  minute,  1  2-5 
pounds  per  second.  In  ordinary  work.  6  pounds  of  water  are 
converted  into  steam  for  each  pound  of  coal  consumed,  and  ^ 
about  12  pounds  per  pound  of  crude  oil.  The  amount  of  coal  ' 
wasted  in  four  minutes  was  56  pounds,  14  of  a  pound  per 
second.  In  forty  seconds,  10  pounds,  or  one  shovelful  of  coal, 
would  be  wasted. 


FIRING.  49 

erly  supplying  the  boiler  with  water  and  the  fire 
with  fuel;  fourth,  smooth,  steady  running;  and 
last,  but  not  least,  unity  of  action  between  the 
engineer  and  fireman. 

If  an  engine's  cylinders  are  too  large  for  the 
boiler,  the  boiler  too  large  for  the  fire-box  and 
heating  surfaces,  the  draught  appliances  improp- 
erly adjusted,  cylinders,  valves,  steam  pipes,  and 
joints  blowing,  valve  motion  out  of  order,  it  is 
next  to  impossible  for  any  kind  of  engineer  or 
fireman  to  make  a  good  record  with  her.  Tw^o- 
thirds  of  a  good  coal  record  can  always  be  traced 
to  the  engineer  wiio  by  intelligence  and  interest 
in  performing  his  duties  accomplishes  smooth, 
steady  running.  If  the  engineer  takes  no  interest, 
the  fireman  will  be  com})elled  to  take  things  as 
they  are  and  may  be  blamed  for  the  engineer's 
ignorance  or  carelessness. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  engineers,  and  two  kinds 
of  firemen ;  therefore,  there  are  two  ways  of  ran- 
ning  and  two  ways  of  firing  a  locomotive.  Some 
:nen  would  not  make  good,  economical  engineers 
with  unlimited  experience;  some  will  try  to  make 
up  all  the  time  they  are  behind  in  the  first  two  or 
three  miles,  or  before  they  get  out  of  the  yard 
limits ;  some  will  leave  on  time,  on  a  moderately 
fast  run,  and  will  run  as  fast  as  they  can  to  the 
next  town,  but  finding  they  are  going  to  arrive 
too  soon,  shut  off,  regardless  of  the  high  steam 
pressure  and  big  fire,  and  away  goes  the  steam 
through  the  pop,  rei>eating  the  process  between 
ever}"  station.  In  this  ease  the  fireman  through 
the  conduct  of  the  engineer  has  to  fire  the  engine 
so  that  when  leaving  a  town  he  will  have  a  fire 
that  will  stand  the  conditions ;  be  is  detenuined  to 


50  FIRING. 

keep  her  hot,  if  it  takes  all  the  coal  in  the  coalpit ; 
then,  when  the  throttle  is  again  shut  off,  the 
safety  valve  screams  with  joy. 

Again  an  engineer  may  let  the  balance-packing 
blow,  pistons  and  rods  leak,  steam  pipes  and 
joints  leak,  nozzles  get  loose  or  choke  up,  and  so 
on,  and  should  the  fireman  make  suggestions  as  to 
the  cause  or  cure,  the  engineer  may  tell  him  he 
is  firing  her  too  heavy,  the  first  is  full  of  holes, 
or  something  else;  perhaps  he  will  be  informed 
he  is  not  paid  for  running  tlie  engine,  or  he  knows 
too  much. 

Such  an  engineer  will  be  afraid  to  make  a  re- 
port, for  he  may  not  know  what  to  report.  His 
engine  runs  down  and  becomes  a  poor  steamer, 
and  will  burn  all  the  coal  a  fireman  can  shovel 
into  the  fire-box.  Other  engineers  may  have  no 
confidence  in  themselves,  or  their  engine's  ability, 
and  on  a  hill  or  heavy  train  will  want  her  popping 
all  the  time,  claiming  they  can  not  pull  cars  with 
cold  water ;  or  they  may  make  a  run  for  a  hill  like 
a  boy  running  a  mile  to  jump  over  a  two^board 
fence,  and  are  out  of  wind  when  they  get  there. 
The  economical  engineer  is  one  who  will  do  the 
right  thii  g  at  the  right  time  with  the  least  pos- 
sible amount  of  steam  going  through  the  cylinders, 
and  has  confidence  in  his  engine's  and  his  own 
ability,  never  gets  in  a  hurry  and  is  generally  on 
time;  he  reads  and  keeps  up  with  the  times,  and 
is  not  afraid  to  discuss  questions  with  his  fireman. 

Fuel  and  Comhustion.  Coal  is  composed  of  sev- 
eral ingredients,  as  follows:— Carbon,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  hydrogen,  sulphur,  ash  or  incombustible 
iiubstances.     In  bituminous  coal  the  proportions 


FIRING.  61 

vary  as  the  coal  varies,  but,  in  good  soft  coal,  are 
about  as  follows: — 

Carbon,  50  per  cent  (gases) ;  moisture,  35  per 
cent;  ash,  etc.,  15  j>er  cent. 

Carbon  forms  the  solid  portion  of  the  coal,  and 
is  the  chief  element  in  its  composition.  It  is  one' 
of  the  most  abundant  elements  in  nature,  and  is 
found  in  various  states  or  conditions,  such  as 
graphite,  charcoal,  the  diamond,  and  so  on.  The 
difference  between  graphite  and  a  diamond  in 
appearance  is  as  day  to  night,  but,  wheu  analyzed, 
they  are  found  to  contain  nothing  but  pure  carbon. 

In  burning  carbon,  if  the  process  of  combus- 
tion is  comi)lete,  it  will  give  out  14,5(J0  heat  units. 
Next  to  carlx)n  comes  hydrogen,  which  exists  only 
in  a  gaseous  state.  It  is  the  lightest  known  sub- 
stance in  nature.  Two  atoms  of  hydrogen  gas 
uniting  with  one  atom  of  oxygen  gas  produces 
water,  and,  in  the  burning  of  a  fire,  forms  the 
moisture  which,  together  with  the  other  gases, 
fonns  the  gaseous  substances  in  the  coal.  One 
pound  of  hydrogen  gas  yields  62,032  units  of 
heat,  and  is  the  greatest  heat  known  produced 
by  the  combustion  of  one  ijound  of  any  known 
substance.  The  ashes,  or  incombustible  matter  in 
the  fuel,  come  from  the  imjmrities  contained  in 
the  vegetation  from  which  the  coi.l  or  fuel  orig- 
inated. Sulphur  is  one  of  the  elements  of  coal, 
and  is  the  chief  element  in  the  formation  of 
clinkers.    It  exists  only  in  a  solid  state. 

Combustion,  or  fire,  is  the  result  of  the  rapid 
union  of  oxygen  with  carbon  wheu  uniting  at  a 
high  degree  of  temperature,  producing  light  and 
heat.  It  simply  means  decay  in  a  rapid  form. 
For  example,  take  two  pieces  of  wood,  coal,  or 


52  "  FIRING. 

any  other  substance  that  will  burn,  set  one  piece 
an  fire ;  in  a  few  minutes  it  is  all  consumed,  leav- 
ing nothing  but  a  few  asi.es.  The  other  is  thrown 
on  the  ground,  and  remains  there  to  rot  or  decay ; 
it  may  take  years  before  the  second  piece  is  re- 
duced to  ashes,  but  the  process  is  identical,  and 
the  heat  units  produced  are  exactly  the  same  in 
both  cases.  The  first  we  call  fire;  the  second, 
decay.  In  reality,  it  is  all  decay,  the  first  being 
the  rapid  process  caused  by  the  rapid  union  of 
oxygen  with  carbon,  or  fuel  at  a  high  degree  of 
temperature.  The-  second,  the  slow  process  of 
decay  on  account  of  the  slow  union  of  oxygen 
with  the  carbon  or  fuel,  producing  no  light  and 
no  perceptible  heat,  but  heat  is  produced  just  the 
same. 

Combustion,  as  we  understand  it,  is  produced 
by  the  rapid  union  of  oxygen  with  carbon,  and 
is  always  accompanied  by  light  and  heat.  It  has 
been  found  upon  examination  that  not  only  is  the 
heat  of  combustion  a  fixed  quantity  whether  the 
union  of  oxygen  with  carbon  takes  place  slowly 
or  rapidly,  but  that  the  heat  evolved  in  any  given 
chemical  reaction  is  always  the  same,  and  is  al- 
ways accompanied  by  an  evolution  of  heat. 

Any  substance  which  has  the  power  to  unite 
with  other  substances  has  power  to  do  work  and 
possess  chemical  energy ;  therefore  all  combustible 
material  can  do  work.  By  uniting  with^  oxygen, 
it  produces  heat,  and  the  heat  in  turn  is  trans- 
formed into  motion.  Thus  we  see  the  source  of 
power  in  the  steam  engine  is  chemical  energy 
produced  by  the  burning  fire  in  the  fire-box. 

Wliere  does  this  power  or  combustion  or  pent 
up  energy  come  from,  or  how  and  where  did  it 


FIRING.  53 

originate?  In  ages  gone  by,  no  one  knows  how 
long,  the  rays  or  heat  of  the  sun  caused  the  trees 
and  plants  to  grow  and  flourish  in  the  atmos- 
phere, which  was  abundantly  supplied  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas ;  this  acid  or  gas  in  the  atmosphere 
entered  into  the  growing  trees  and  vegetation,  and 
was  stored  there  for  man's  use  and  benefit;  as 
time  went  by,  the  vegetation,  tlirough  the  action 
of  the  elements,  took  a  new  form ;  just  how  or 
what  was  the  cause  is  not  known,  but  the  result 
is  coal. 

The  sunbeams  building  up  the  trees  and  plants 
expended  a  great  amount  of  heat,  and  the  heat 
expended  equal  to  the  amount  of  work  done  in 
producing  the  growth ;  the  heat  i)roduced  by  one 
pound  of  coal  is  no  more  and  no  less  than  the 
amount  of  heat  stored  in  the  coal  when  in  the 
form  of  growing  vegetation.  It  absorbed  the  heat 
from  the  sun,  consequently  all  motion  produced 
by  combustion  through  caloric  or  heat  engines 
comes  from  the  sun  and  planets.  Having  arrived 
at  the  source  of  power  in  all  caloric  engines,  we 
will  endeavor  to  utilize  the  power  to  the  best  of 
our  ability. 

One  unit  of  heat  equals  722  foot-pounds  of 
work,  or,  to  put  it  a  little  more  clearly,  will  raise 
722  pounds  one  foot  high;  140,000  units  of  heat, 
which  is  the  result  of  the  perfect  combustion  of 
ten  pounds  of  coal  (one  shovel  full)  will  raise  772 
pounds  100,000,000  feet  high,  or  100  tons  526  feef 
high;  33,000  pounds  raised  one  foot  high  equals 
one  horse  power;  100  tons  raised  526  feet  equals 
3,  187  H.  P.* 

*In  practice  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  these  results  even 
with  our  best  mechanical  appliances,  on  account  of  the  many 


54  FIRING. 

When  a  fire  is  lighted  in  a  locomotive  fire-box, 
tlie  burning  is  slow  at  first,  and  shortly  after  the 
fire  begins  to  burn,  water  is  seen  to  ooze  out  of 
the  cracks,  and  joints  in  the  front  end  very  often. 
Thus  we  say  the  front  end  is  sweating;  this  is  a 
mistake.  Webster  defines  sweating  as  moisture 
issuing  from  the  skin.  This  water  we  see  coming 
out  of  the  front  end  is  the  result  of  the  process 
of  combustion  going  on  in  the  fire-box.* 

Great  care  should  be  taken  when  starting  a  fire 
to  prevent  this  formation  of  water  in  the  front 
end,  as  it  j^revents  the  fire  raising  steam  by 
stopping  up  the  netting,  thereby  shutting  off  the 
draught  and  supply  of  air  necessary  for  good 
combustion,  and  is  also  a  source  of  much  waste 
of  fuel. 

When  steam  has  been'  raised,  and  the  engine 
being  prepared  for  the  trip,  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  as  much  water  in  the  boiler  as  it  will  hold 
without  priming  when  the  throttle  is  opened;  in 
this  a  great  amount  of  heat  is  stored;  then,  when 
starting  out,  it  will  not  be  necessarv^  with  the  in- 


avenues  of  waste  connected  with  the  operation  of  a  locomo- 
tive, such  as  unskilful  running  and  firing,  loss  by  radiation, 
condensation,  loss  of  heat,  loss  by  smoke  and  unconsumed 
gases,  passing  out  of  the  smoke-stack  as  a  result  of  imperfect 
combustion  caused  by  bad  or  unskilful  firing,  poorly  designed 
fire-boxes,  and  ash-pan  appliances,  and  badly  adjusted  draught 
appliances,  etc. 

*When  oxygen  unites  with  the  fuel  and  hydro-carbons  at 
a  certain  degree  of  temperature,  it  produces  hydrogen  gas, 
one  atom  of  hydrogen  gas  combining  with  one  atom  of  oxy- 
gen produces  water,  and  this  water  passes  off  from  the  fire 
In  the  form  of  vapor.  This  gaseous  vapor  passing  along 
through  the  flues  of  the  front  end  condenses  as  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  cold  sheets  of  iron,  forming  little  pools  of 
water,  which  find  their  way  out  through  the  joints. 


FIRING.  55 

jector  on,  which  would  have  to  be  the  case  with 
low  water.  The  engine  can  run  along  for  some 
distance  before  the  injector  is  started  thereby 
giving  the  fire  a  chance  to  burn  good  ^\'ithout 
crowding  it.  Care  should  also  be  taken  to  have 
a  good  fire  in  before  starting,  so  that  when  the 
engine  is  working  hard  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
open  the  fire-box  door,  but  the  fireman  can  wait 
until  the  lever  is  cut  back  and  a  light  exhaust  act- 
ing on  the  fire;  then,  when  the  door  is  open,  there 
will  not  be  such  a  rush  of  cold  air  going  in  the 
fire-box  through  it. 

In  a  fire-box  one  or  two  gases  are  being  formed 
at  all  times  during  the  process  of  combustion,  and 
it  is  very  essential  that  we  know  which  of  these 
two  gases  is  being  formed,  as  the  formation  of  one 
is  accompanied  by  great  loss  of  fuel,  while  the 
other  makes  the  hottest  and  most  successful  fire 
that  can  be  produced  by  the  burning  of  fuel  in  a 
locomotive  fire-box. 

When  the  fire  is  light  and  the  proper  amount 
of  air  is  being  admitted  to  it,  so  that  one  atom 
of  carbon  imites  with  two  atoms  of  oxygen,  the 
result  of  their  union  is  carbonic  acid  gas.  In 
burning  carbonic  acid  gas,  one  pound  of  carbon 
yields  14,500  heat  units.  When  this  process  is 
going  on,  the  fire  will  have  an  incandescent  ap- 
pearance, and  the  inside  of  the  fire-box  will  have 
a  whitish  gray  color.  When  the  fire  is  heavy  or 
clogged  by  ashes  or  clinkers,  so  that  the  supply 
of  air  is  restricted,  and  two  atoms  of  oxygen  are 
not  present  to  unite  with  one  atom  of  carbon,  then 
one  atom  of  oxygen  will  combine  with  one  atom 
of  carbon,  and  the  result  is  carbonic  oxide  gas.  In 
burning  carbonic  oxide  gas,  one  pound  of  carbon 


56  FIRING. 

yields  only  4,550  units  of  heat.  In  this  case  the 
fire  will  have  a  heavy^  dull  appearance,  and  the 
inside  of  the  fire-box  will  have  a  black,  sooty  ap- 
pearance, and  heavy  clouds  of  smoke  will  roll  out 
of  the  smokestack.* 

The  practical  duties  of  the  fireman  are  to  see 
that  the  grates  and  appurtenances  of  his  engine 
are  in  proper  order  and  that  the  full  complement 
of  tools  is  on  hand  before  starting;  that  the  flue 
sheets  are  cleaned  of  clinkers  before  his  engine 
is  fired  up,  and  that  the  fire  is  evenly  placed  over 
the  entire  grate  surface ;  that  a  bed  of  fire  covers 
the  forward  portion  of  the  grate  next  the  flue 
sheets  before  the  blower  is  used;  that  the  blower 
be  used  as  lightly  as  possible;  that  there  is  suffi- 
cient fuel  on  the  fire  before  starting  the  locomo- 
tive to  hold  it  and  keep  up  steam  while  the  engine 
is  getting  under  way  so  as  to  permit  the  fireman 
to  give  his  attention  wholly  to  the  signals  and 
switches;  that  opening  the  fire  door  while  the 
exhaust  is  strong  should  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible;  that  coal  is  broken  (if  necessary)  into 
pieces  as  near  egg  size  as  possible;  that  in  firing 
under  the  ''spreading"  system  the  coal  is  broken 
into  the  proper  size  and  scattered  over  the  surface 
of  the  fire  evenly,  giving  the  sides  and  corners 
the  preference.t 

When  the  train  is  under  way  and  normal  pres- 
sure of  steam  has  been  attained  two  or  three 
shovelfuls  of  coal  should  be  placed  in  the  fire-box 


*T.  J.  Henderson. 

fCoal  broken  into  pieces  of  the  proper  size  offers  greater 
surface  area  to  the  heat  and  permits  of  being  scattered  more 
uniformly  over  the  fire. 


FIRING.  57 

at  a  time,  liglitly  and  frequently  and  the  door 
kept  open  only  as  long  as  may  be  absolutely  neces- 
sary ;  the  coal  having  been  broken  in  advance,  the 
shovel  should  be  filled  and  draAMi  forward  within 
reach  ready  for  the  coal  to  be  placed  on  the  fire 
— this  before  the  fire-box  door  is  opened.* 

Except  in  very  cold  weather  coal  should  be 
wetted  to  prevent  dust  and  dirt.  This  gives  in- 
creased weight  to  the  fine  particles  which  other- 
wise would  be  dra^\^l  directly  into  the. flues  caus- 
ing not  only  waste  of  fuel,  but  stoppage  of  the 
flues. 

If  the  locomotive  is  supplied  with  a  smoke 
burner,  it  should  be  carefully  looked  after,  and  if 
there  are  any  flues  in  the  sides  or  rear  of  the 
fire-box  for  admitting  air  above  the  fire,  they 
should  be  kept  open,  as  it  will  tend  to  more  per- 
fect combustion  and  help  to  abate  the  smoke 
nuisance.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  throw  the 
coal  so  that  it  will  strike  the  flues  or  fall  on  top 
of  the  arch,  if  the  engine  has  one. 

A  fire  requires  to  be  frequently  replenished 
^^^tll  small  quantities  of  fuel  in  order  to  keep  it 
bright.  Heat  is  greatest  when  there  is  a  rapid 
state  of  combustion.  If  there  are  clouds  of 
smoke  in  the  fire-box,  heat  will  not  readily  pene- 
trate them,  and  so  poor  results  will  be  attained. 

In  ease  it  is  foimd  necessary  to  maintain  a 


♦Another  method  of  firing  is  known  as  the  "banking"  sys- 
tem used  principally  with  certain  grades  of  coal  having  few 
or  no  clinkers.  In  this  case  the  coal  is  piled  up  at  the  back 
part  of  the  fire-box,  sloping  down  toward  the  front  where  the 
layer  of  coal  being  thin,  is  in  a  high  state  of  incandescence — 
wtien  the  heap  of  coal  at  the  back  of  the  fire-box  is  thor- 
oughly coked  it  is  pushed  forward  and  a  fresh  supply  of  fuel 
put  in  its  place  to  undergo  the  same  process. 


58  •    FIRING. 

very  heavy  fire  in  order  to  generate  sufficient 
steam,  it  indicates  that  there  is  something  wrong 
■with  the  iront  end  of  the  engine;  either  the  nozzle 
is  too  small  or  may  have  become  choked,  or  the 
draft  appliances  are  not  properly  adjusted. 

The  temperature  required  to  ignite  carbon  (of 
which  coal  is  chiefly  composed)  is  about  eighteen 
hundred  degrees.  If,  thereiore,  a  large  amount 
of  coal  is  placed  on  the  fire  at  one  time,  the  tem- 
perature is  reduced  until  the  coal  supplied  can 
be  brought  up  to  tlie  required  temperature.  The 
result  is,  first,  contraction  of  the  metal  surround- 
ing tlie  fire-box,  followed  by  expansion,  thus  sub- 
jecting the  boiler  to  a  great  and  unnecessary 
strain. 

The-  importance  of  making  proper  use  of  the 
dampers  is  not  always  appreciated.  With  single 
part  ash-pans,  one  damper,  and  that  ordinarily  the 
rear  one,  will  be  found  most  economical.  By 
opening  both  dampers  when  the  engine  is  working 
lightly  with  a  thin  fire,  too  much  air  will  be 
admitted,  and  as  air  drawn  through  a  fire  in  excess 
of  the  amount  required  for  combustion  tends  to 
cool  the  gases  below  the  point  of  ignition,  waste  of 
fuel  results.  Closing  the  dampers  prevents  the 
admission  of  air  through  the  fire.  This  stops 
combustion  and  leaves  the  fire-box  and  flue  sheets 
to  gradually  cool  off.  Opening  wide  the  fire-box 
door  will  only  partially  prevent  the  draft  through 
the  fire,  while  it  admits  cold  air  directly  onto  the 
flues  and  sheets  surrounding  the  fire-box,  thereby 
cooling  them  so  suddenly  as  to  cause  leaks. 

In  firing,  the  requirements  of  the  service  should 
be  anticipated.  A  heavy  fire  should  not  be  main- 
tained when  steam  is  to  be  shut  off  wholly  or  par- 


FIRING.  69 

tially.  A  hard  pull,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be 
anticipated. 

In  starting,  the  coal  should  be  well  ignited  so 
that  there  will  be  no  occasion  for  opening  the  fire- 
box door  until  the  train  has  gained  considerable 
headway  and  the  lever  has  been  hooked  up,  with 
consequent  lighter  pull  from  the  exhaust. 

On  aiJi)roaching  a  stopping  poinj:,  the  dampers 
should  be  shut  down,  and  if  bituminous  coal  is 
used,  but  little,  if  any,  fresh  fuel  supplied  to  the 
fire.  If,  however,  fresh  coal  has  been  applied 
through  misjudgment  or  otherwise,  the  blower 
should  l3e  opened  and  the  fire-box  door  left  slight- 
ly ajar  to  prevent  smoke  and  injurious  gases  es- 
caping. 

Choking  volumes  of  coal  smoke  and  gases  often 
find  their  way  into  passenger  cars,  causing  great 
discomfort,  when  careless  or  unskillful  firing  is 
exercised. 

It  should.be  borne  in  mind,  in  approaching  a 
stopping  place,  that  a  saving  of  fuel  will  result 
from  letting  the  steam  drop  back  a  few  pounds, 
rather  than  to  allow  it  to  escape  through  the 
safety  valves.  "When  it  is  found  necessary  to 
reduce  the  steam  pressure,  the  dampers  should 
be  closed,  rather  than  the  fire-lx)x  door  opened. 
The  injector  may  also  be  started  if  the  boiler  is 
not  already  too  full ;  if  it  is,  the  steam  may,  in 
many  cases,  be  utilized  by  turning  it  into  the  tank 
to  warm  the  water  therein.* 

The  ash-pan  and  the  front  end  should  be  cleaned 


♦Practical  experiment  has  demonstrated  that  every  11  de- 
grees (Fahr.)  increase  in  the  temperature  of  the  feed  water 
produces  about  one  per  cent  economy  in  the  locomotive  boiler. 


60  FIRINO. 

whenever  opportunity  presents  itself.  A  set  rule 
cannot  be  laid  down  as  to  the  frequency  with 
which  these  duties  should  be  perfoiTued.  No  great 
amount  of  labor  will  be  required  in  cleaning  the 
front  end  of  cinders  if  the  draft  appliances  are 
good  and  there  are  no  steam  leaks. 

In  regard  to  the  ash-pan,  it  will  fill  up  more  or 
less  quickly  according  to  the  grade  of  coal  and 
the  amount  used.  With  a  poor  grade  of  coal,  it 
may  become  necessary  to  clean  the  ash-pan  on 
the  road.  The  better  steaming  of  the  engine  will 
more  than  compensate  for  time  thus  lost,  and  it 
may  result  that  failure  to  perform  this  duty  will 
necessitate  the  consumption  of  two  or  three  ad- 
ditional tons  of  coal  on  a  trip. 

When  sufficient  air  is  not  admitted  through  the 
body  of  the  fire,  there  is  a  loss  through  the  smoke- 
stack of  about  two-thirds,  or  more,  of  the  heating 
properties  of  coal.  This  shows  the  importance  of 
keeping  as  thin  a  fire  as  is  consistent  with  the 
working  of  the  engine. 

Grates  are  to  be  shaken  lightly  as  frequently  as 
required. 

If  clinkers  accumulate  they  should  be  removed 
at  the  first  opportunity. 

The  steam  pressure  should  be  kept  within  the 
prescribed  limits  and  not  permitted  to  change 
rapidly  either  way. 

The  blower  should  be  used  while  the  injector  is 
working,  so  as  to  prevent  change  of  temperature 
of  the  boiler. 

It  is  a  truism  that  economical  firing  is  impossible 
where  the  engine  and  injector  are  started  simul- 
taneously or  both  shut  off  at  the  same  time  on  ap- 
proaching stations.    The  cause  of  leaky  boilers  is 


FIRING.  '61 

not  necessarily  the  result  of  ovei'working  the  en- 
gine but  is  often  due  to  iK)or  management  of  the 
fire  and  injectors  combined  with  injudicious  use 
of  the  throttle.* 

To  prevent  or  stop  the  engine  blowing  off,  the 
supply  of  water  should  be  increased  or  the  damper 
dropi)ed. 

If  necessary  to  oi)en  the  door  of  the  fire-lx)x 
while  the  engine  is  working,  it  is  to  be  done  slight- 
ly or  swung  open  and  shut. 

So  far  as  practicable  the  smoking  or  drumming 
of  the  engine  while  at  stations,  or  when  attached 
to  or  in  the  vicinity  of  a  passenger  train,  is  to  be 
prevented. 

Ash-i)aus  and  fires  should  not  be  cleaned  near 
a  biidge,  culvert,  depot,  or  buildinar,  or  on  a  frog 
or  switch,  and  the  fire  should  Ix?  extinguished  with 
water  before  leaving  it. 

At  the  close  of  a  run,  when  the  fire  has  been 
removed,  the  damjiers  and  fire  doors  should  be 
kejit  closed  while  the  engine  is  l^eing  handled. 

AVliile  it  is  possible  for  a  man  to  become  an 
adept  without  having  studied  the  laws  of  combus- 
tion, it  is  nevertheless  true  that  if  he  be  thus 
skilled,  he  is  obeying  those  laws.  To  such  a  one 
the  study  of  combustion  may  be  more  interesting 
than  beneficial,  but  to  others  study  will  open  up 
an  avenue  to  the  knowledge  they  should  possess 
if  they  would  serve  their  employer  acceptably. 
Men   ignorant   of   the   laws   of   combustion,   who 


*In  relation  to  the  promotion  of  a  fireman  to  tbe  position 
of  engineer,  it  is  claimed  by  many  experts  that  a  fireman  who 
has  been  out  of  freight  service  for  several  years  should  not 
be  promoted  to  the  position  of  engineer  without  again  firing 
a  freight  engine  for  three  or  four  months. 


62  FIRING. 

stumble  into  the  right  path,  would  attain  it  much 
easier  and  more  quickly  by  study.  All,  therefore, 
should  study  the  subject,  and  this  both  practically 
and  scientifically. 

Extended  observation  leads  to  the  knowledge 
that  lack  of  steam-making  power  in  the  engine 
is  too  often  the  result  of  over-firing.  Especially 
is  this  true  in  the  case  of  new  firemen,  or  where 
the  engine  has  a  reputation  of  making  steam 
poorly. 

As  already  pointed  out,  perfect  firing  means" 
the  admission  of  fuel  and  air  in  exactly  proper 
proportions,  but  as  no  fixed  rale  can  be  accu- 
rately followed,  the  fireman  may  hope  to  approxi- 
mate it  by  watching  closely  the  results  of  different 
methods  of  firing,  remembering  that,  in  many 
cases,  by  saving  the  shovelfuls  of  coal,  the  ton  is 
saved.* 

The  following  are  practical  hints  to  firemen: 
If  using  soft  coal  do  not  carry  over  ten  or  twelve 
inches  of  fire  in  the  center  of  the  fire-box ;  keep 
the  sides  and  corners  a  little  higher;  aim  to  fire 
in  the  corners  and  sides  more  than  in  the  center. 
If  the  boiler  will  not  steam  well  with  a  light  fire, 
more  air  is  probably  needed  at  the  front  of  the 
box.     Leave  the  fire  door  open  a  little  way  for  a 


♦While  the  foregoing  instructions  In  regard  to  firing  apply- 
In  the  main  to  all  classes  of  fuel,  yet  it  is  true  they  refer  par- 
ticularly, in  several  instances  to  bituminous  coal.  Where 
anthracite  coal  or  wood  is  used  therefore,  modifications  will 
be  required  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fuel  and  the  class 
of  fire-box  and  engine.  However  the  general  rule  requiring 
that  the  fuel  shall  be  so  used  as  to  burn  most  freely  and 
create  the  maximum  intensity  of  heat  with  the  least  fuel 
possible,  applies  in  every  case.  This  is  also  true  in  regard 
to  keeping  the  grates  free  of  clinkers  and  ashes. 


FIRING.  63 

few  seconds  after  putting  in  coal,  it  helps  to  con- 
sume  the  smoke.      Two   shoA'elfuls  is    enough  at 
one  time  if  put  on  the  briglit  spots.      No  boiler 
will  steam  well  with  the  fire-box  and  flues  full  of 
smoke.    If  you  have  occasion  to  use  the  hook,  be 
careful  not  to  mix  the  green  coal  with  that  partly 
consumed.      Do  not  use  a  slash  bar  if  it  can  be 
avoided  and  be  careful  not  to  get  green  coal  on 
the  grates.     If  the  box  has  an  arch,  keep  a  good 
space  open  between  the  arch  and  the  fire.    If  the 
engine  has  a  heavy  train,  it  will  need  a  heavier 
fire  than  with  a  light  train  and  a  fast  run ;  always 
make  calculations  to  fire  according  to  train  and 
speed.      Hook   out  all   clinkers    from  the   fire   as 
soon  as  you  find  them.     Do  not  fire  nmch  while 
pumi)s  or  injectors  are  on  full.    If  tlie  engine  has 
ash  pan  dampers  use  them  when  necessary.      If 
there  is  more  steam  than  is  needed  the  dampers 
should  be  closed;  a  certain  amount  of  air  is  neces- 
sary to  make  a  fire  burn  as  it  should ;  if  too  much 
air  is  admitted  the  gases  will  be  chilled;  if  too 
little  they  will  not  ignite ;  no  rule  can  be  made 
for   the   exact  amount   of  air   required,   because 
different  kinds  of  coal  require  var^Mng  (piantities 
of  air;  only  keep  a  bright  fire  low  in  the  center 
of  the  box  whore  the  most  air  is  needed  and  wat<:'h 
when  the   greatest  flame  appears  in   the  fire-box 
with  the  least  smoke  going  out  of  the  stack;  at- 
tend to  the  fire  often,  and  do  not  use  lumps  of 
coal  larger  than  an  egg.     Keep  the  ash-pan  clean 
or  the  grates  will  burn  out.      If  firing  an  .engine 
hauling  a  passenger  train,  on  approaching  a  sta- 
tion,  as   soon   as   the  throttle  is   closed,   put  the 
btower  on  lightly  and  open  the  fire  door  about  half 
an  inch ;  when  nearing  the  end  of  the  trip  let  the 


64 


FIRING. 


fire  run  low.  Do  all  you  can  to  help  the  engineer, 
but  do  nothing  wdthout  first  knowing  that  he 
wishes  it  done.  Keep  all  tools  and  cans  clean  and 
be  ready  and  willing  to  aid  him.  Try  to  learn 
what  he  does  and  how  he  does  it,  trying  to  antici- 
pate his  wishes. 

The   following   illustrations   show   graphically 
the  effect  of  different  methods  of  firing : 

Fig.  1  shows  the  system  of  heavy  firing  at  the 
door,  resulting  in  a  light  fire  over  only  a  portion 
of  the  grate  sur- 
face as  plainly 
shown  by  the 
path  of  the 
flame.  This 
method  of  firing 
shuts  otf  the 
proper  supply  of 
air  to  the  back 
portion  of  the 
fire,  with  a  consequent  reduction  in  fire-box  tem- 
perature, and  forces  the  forward  portion  of  the 
grate  surface  to  perform  the  work  that  was  in- 
tended to  be  distributed  over  the  whole  grate  area. 
Fig.  2  shows  a  system  of  light  and  level  cross 

firing  with  slight 
building  up 
around  the  edges, 
producing  a  bright 
fire  with  high  tem- 
perature through- 
out the  whole  fire- 
Fig.  2.  box. 


Fig.  1. 


FIRING. 


64a 


Fig.  3  shows  good  firing  and  the  effect  of  a  tem- 
porary reduction  in  fire-box  temperature  when  a 
shovelful  of  coal  i 
is  introduced.  p 

Fig.     4      ^         -■  ' 


shows  F-[^ 
peratureU| 


1  h  e  temp 
in  the  front  end 
of  the  fire-box  re- 
stored at  the  time 
a  shovelful  is  put 
into  the  back  end 
as  would  be  done  ^^^th  the  system  of  cross  firing, 
and  a  consequent  reduction  of  temi)erature  when 

tlie  coal  is  put 
into  the  back 
end  of  fire-box. 
Fig.  5  shows 
an  end  view  of 
the  fire-b  o  x 
with  a  slight 
building  up  of 
the  fire  on  the 

sides,  as  would  be  the  result  of 
the  system  of  cross  firing. 

Fig.  6  shows  an  end  view  of 
the  action  of  the  draft  in  thin- 
ning the  fire  along  the  sheets  of 
the  fire-box  unless  the  coal  is 
introduced  as  per  Fig.  5. 

P^ig.     7     shows     the    method 
known  as  cross  firing.    In  this 
system   a   shovelful   of   coal   is 
spread  near  one  of  the  front  corners  (at  1), 
next  shovelful  is  put  in  the  back  and  opposite 


the 

side 


64& 


FIRING. 


Fig.  6. 


(at  2),  thus  alternating  the 
places  where  each  shovelful  is 
l^ut  between  the  corners  and  the 
middle  of  the  grates,  first  on  one 
side  and  then  at  the  other.  This 
method  tends  to  keep  the  fire 
nearly  level,  except  a  little 
heavier  next  to  the  sheets  to  pre- 
vent too  much  air  entering  at 
these  points,  as  the  air  will  not 
be  heated  to  the  igniting  point  until  it  gets  near 
the  middle  of  the  fire-box  on  account  of  the  tem- 
perature near  the 
sheets  being  held 
down  by  amount 
absorbed  by  the 
water  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the 
sheets.  It  is 
claimed  to  be  good  practice  to  fire  on  one  side  or 
end,  then  at  the  other,  in  order  that  the  bright  fire 
in  one  place  may  help  to  burn  the  gases  liberated 
from  coal  introduced  at  the  other. 


Pis.  8. 


Fig.  8  shows  the  cooling  effect  from  a  hole  being 
allowed  to  get  in  the  fire,  admitting  a  large  volume 
of  cold  air  into  the  fire-box. 


CHAPTER  V. 

POINTERS    FOR    P'IREMEN.* 

When  a  young  man  enters  the  locomotive  ser- 
vice his  success  depends  on  his  own  efforts.  He 
should  endeavor  to  reach  the  round  house,  if  pos- 
sible in  ami>le  time  to  get  the  engine  ready  for 
the  trip,  dust  off  the  boiler  head,  sweep  off  the 
deck,  and,  if  at  night,  have  the  cab  lamps  lighted, 
lubricators  and  oil  cans  filled  and  ready  for  use, 
wipe  off  the  front  window  of  the  cab,  if  neces- 
sary, that  the  engineer  may  be  able  to  see  through 
the  glass.  If  a  night  run,  the  cab  lamps  should 
be  kept  burning  brightly  so  that  the  engineer  can 
read  the  steam  and  air  gauges  correctly  and  tell 
the  pressures.  Engineers  appreciate  these  little 
things  and  will  very  likely  make  it  as  pleasant  for 
the  fireman  as  they  can  and  take  an  interest  in  him. 
"When  approaching  stations  where  stops  are  made 
to  oil,  kee})  the  coal  out  of  the  gang-way  and  if 
there  is  anything  to  do,  such  as  a  rod  cup  to  fill  or 
a  truck  to  pack,  anticipate  the  requirements  and 
have  the  tools  handy  that  the  work  may  be  done 
with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  Assist  the  engi- 
neer all  you  can  and  thereby  obtain  a  more  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  manner  of  doing  the  work. 
Alter  you  leave  the  station  and  the  pressure  is 
near  the  popping  point,  if  the  engineer's  atten- 


*The  author  is  indebted  for  this  eminently  practical  chap- 
ter, invaluable  to  firemen,  to  Mr.  W.  G.  Wallace. 

(65) 


66  FIREMEN. 

tion  is  taken  up  with  something  else,  a  jerk  on 
the  fire-door  chain  or  opening  the  door  will  cause 
him  to  put  on  the  injector  at  a  time  when  you  are 
ready  for  him.  He  will  be  quick  to  take  advantage 
of  this  if  he  desires  to  save  a  little  coal  that  would 
otherwise  be  wasted  by  allowing  the  engine  to  pop. 

When  doing  switching,  if  you  are  pulling  out 
over  a  switch  with  a  string  of  cars  and  the  sig- 
nals are  given  on  your  side,  when  you  get  a  sig- 
nal to  stop  say  tO'  the  engineer  "that  will  do"; 
don't  ride  on  the  seat  until  the  stop  is  made,  but 
get  down  and  drop  in  the  amount  of  coal  neces- 
sary and  get  back  on  the  seat  m  time  to  get  the 
signal  to  back  up  and  transmit  it  to  the  engineer' 
without  delay.  Brakemen,  as  a  rule,  are  left- 
handed  when  doing  switching,  but  there  may  be  a 
train  waiting  for  you  to  pull  out  of  the  yard  and, 
of  course,  j^ou  want  to  get  over  the  road.  Get- 
ting signals  promptly  .applies  to  all  kinds  of 
trains,  but .  especially  tO'  passenger  and  way- 
freights.  There  is  nothing  that  will  spoil  a  train 
crew  so  quickly  as  to  have  them  hustle  to  get 
their  work  done  at  a  station  and  then  have  to  wait 
from  20  to  40  seconds  before  the  signal  to  go 
reaches  the  ongine.  If  you  receive  the  signals 
promptly  you  will  soon  make  a  record  with  the 
train  crews.  They  will  be  glad  to  work  with  you, 
as  well  as  to  say,  there  is  a  man  we  never  have  to 
wait  for  when  we  give  a  signal. 

Superintendents,  traveling  engineers  and  train 
masters  ride  these  trains  sometimes  and  obsei've 
these  things.  They  also  remember  them  in  case 
you  should  get  into  trouble  later  on  and  should 
have  occasion  to  go  intO'  their  offices. 

Firemen  have  been  known  in  manv  instances 


FIREMEN.  67 

to  have  a  good  influence  on  engineers  by  some- 
times taking  more  interest  in  their  work  than  the 
engineer  himself.  Some  engineers  are  not  as  at- 
tentive to  their  work  as  they  might  be  at  all  times, 
but  that  kind  of  a  man  is  usually  a  good  fellow. 
"When  he  finds  that  you  are  a  worker  and  taking 
an  interest  in  getting  over  the  road  he  will  try  to 
help  you,  often  a  friendliness  will  spring  up  be- 
tween you.  If  he  should  be  a  little  careless  with 
the  injector  and  knock  the  steam  back  and  you 
think  you  can  improve  on  the  immping,  ask  him  to 
let  you  try  the  left  injector  for  a  while  to  see  how 
it  works.  If  he  does,  you  can  ])erhaps  give  him  an 
object  lesson.  The  result  will  be  that  he  will  al- 
low you  to  i)um])  her  if  you  can  do  better,  or  he 
may  get  the  left  injector  changed  to  his  side  and 
pump  her  himself.  It  should  not- be  the  fireman's 
work  to  pumj)  the  engine,  as  a  rule,  but  if  he  can 
do  it  better  than  the  engineer  he  should  l)e  allowed 
to  do  so.  But  you  do  not  want  to  think  that  this 
is  putting  work  on  you  if  you  do  have  to  pump  the 
engine.  It  will  give  you  practice  and  confidence 
in  your  ability  when  you  are  promoted.  You  all 
know  that  the  good  pumi)er  that  handles  his  water 
nicely  is  the  best  man  to  fire  for,  makes  the  l^est 
time,  does  less  doubling  on  hills  and  earns  moref 
money  for  the  com])any.  Try  and  be  that  kind  of 
a  man  when  you  go  over  to  the  right  side.  Your 
work  is  hard,  but  do  not  make  it  harder  for  your- 
self and  others  by  growling  about  it.  Sometimes 
you  have  hard  trips  and  the  engine  will  not  steam 
properly.  When  you  have  a  trip  of  this  kind  try 
and  study  the  cause  and  fire  the  engine  in  differ- 
ent ways  if  you  can.  Sometimes  dropping  the 
front  dami^er  will  help,  or  the  back  one,  as  the 


68  FIREMEN. 

case  may  be;  see  that  the  drop  grate  is  up  where 
it  should  be. 

A  fireman  was  noticed  firing  an  engine  with  a 
mixture  of  fine  and  lump  coal.  He  put  the  fine 
coal  where  it  would  burn  on  the  grate  surface 
back  of  the  drop  grate  and  the  lump  coal  was 
thrown  to  the  forward  end  of  the  box  on  the  drop 
grate.  When  asked  why  he  handled  his  fire  in 
that  manner  he  said  ''You  know  that  I  cannot 
shake  my  drop  grate,  and  if  I  put  the  good  coal 
up  ahead  that  will  not  clinker  as  much  as  the  fine 
coal.  If  the  fire  clinkers  on  the  other  grates  I 
can  shake  them  and  break  the  clinker  up."  He 
had  plenty  of  steam  at  the  time  and  fire  in  nice 
shape,  due  to  his  intelligent  method  of  handling 
the  fire.  Although  the  person  who  asked  the  ques- 
tion had  years  of  experience  on  a  locomotive  he 
had  never  thought  of  that  before.  That  fireman 
had  his  head  working  and  it  is  needless  to  say 
that  he  was  a  good  one. 

It  frequently  happens  that  an  engine  is  stopped 
near  a  telegraph  office  for  orders  and  allowed  to 
blow  off,  conductor  and  engineer  in  the  office  per- 
haps waiting  for  the  "correct"  or  "0.  K."  from 
the  train  dispatcher,  or  to  have  the  order  repeated. 
Try  and  keep  her  cool.  The  operator  can  read 
the  instrument  better  and  will  get  the  order  that 
much  quicker  for  you. 

If  the  boiler  is  full  of  water  to  the  working 
level,  put  the  heater  on  and  get  the  steam  back 
into  the  feed  water  in  the  tender.  You  will  keep 
down  the  noise  and  increase  the  temperature  of 
the  water.  Feed  water  heaters  are  used  in  sta- 
tionary practice.  Must  be  something  in  it.  This 
can  be  practiced  when  you  get  over  the  hard  pull 


FIREMEN.  69 

and  shut  off  to  drift  down  hill,  or  at  any  time 
when  the  pop  would  open  and  the  escaping  steam 
bo  wasted. 

A  unit  of  heat  is  a  quantity  of  heat  that  will 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  i)Ound  of  water  one 
degree,  and  you  can  evaporate  water  from  90  de- 
grees temperature  with  less  coal  than  you  could 
if  your  feed  water  was  at  a  temperature  of  60  or 
70  degrees.  One  gallon  of  water  weighs  eight  and 
one-third  poimds.  Figure  it  out  for  yourself. 
Try  it  sometime  when  you  are  on  a  hard  steamer, 
for  an  experiment.  It  does  not  take  long  to  put 
the  heater  in  and  you  will  save  the  heat  that  will 
come  in  handy  when  you  are  taking  a  run  for  the 
kill.  You  will,  at  least,  keep  the  tank  from  sweat- 
ing in  warm  weather,  and  that  will  add  to  the 
appearance  of  the  engine.  You  may  say  that  the 
injector  will  not  work  hot  water.  That  may  be 
true,  but  you  can  safely  increase  the  tempera- 
ture to  the  heat  of  a  summer  day.  If  you  do,  it 
ought  to  show  up  at  the  end  of  the  month  on  the 
coal  report. 

Another  thing  that  is  often  noticed,  and  is  an- 
noying, where  bituminous  coal  is  used,  is  the 
drumming  noise  made  by  an  engine  at  times  when 
standing  at  a  station.  It  makes  every  \nndow 
in  the  coaches  rattle  and  some  of  the  passengers 
shiver.  This  can  be  avoided  by  dropping  a  damper 
or  opening  the  fire-door  on  the  latch.  Trj^  it,  and 
save  the  nerves  of  the  nervous  passenger  or  per- 
haps a  sick  friend  of  yours  in  the  Wcinity.  This 
is  caused  by  the  hydrogen  expelled  from  the  coal 
combining  in  certain  proportions  with  the  oxygen 
present  forming  oxyhydrogen  gas,  an  explosive 
compound,  which,  when  subjected  to  a  high  tern- 


70  FIREMEtJ. 

perature,  produces  a  series  of  minute  explosions 
in  the  fire-box. 

Try  and  keep  your  fire  in  its  best  possible  con- 
dition by  firing  the  best  you  can  from  the  time 
you  leave  the  terminal  until  you  arrive.  Avoid 
heavy  firing  and  slugging.  You  will  have  less 
clinkers,  get  more  air  through  your  fire  and  have 
more  steam. 

Study  the  arrangement  of  the  front  end  and 
adjustment  of  same.  Note  the  results  of  certain 
changes.  When  you  get  an  engine  to  run  you 
will  be  able  to  report  what  you  want  done  to  make 
her  above  the  average  on  the  coal  performance 
and  not  say  on  your  report,  "engine  don't  steam 
a  little  bit,  fix  her,"  and  expect  the  man  in  the 
round  house  to  know  what  to  do  to  make  her 
steam  when  he  has  had  no  chance  to  see  how  she 
burns  her  fire.  The  engineer  that  makes  that  kind 
of  a  report  needs  attention ;  he  often  has  the  front 
end  changed  when  he  should  have  the  flues  bored 
out,  or  steam  pipe  joints  ground  in,  or  valves  and 
cylinder  packing  repaired. 

As  you  study  these  things  you  will  be  able  to 
determine  the  defect  and  it  will  not  worry  you  so 
much,  as  you  will  know  where  the  trouble  is.  If 
you  have  your  fire  in  good  condition  when  start- 
ing out,  and  put  the  coal  in  the  fire-box  as  it  is 
burned  and  when  needed,  with  the  engine  handled 
properly,  if  she  does  not  steam  it  is  not  your 
fault.  Worrying  over  it  will  not  raise  the  pres- 
sure and  does  no  good. 

As  for  the  black  smoke  problem,  fire  your  en- 
gine as  light  as  you  can  and  keep  her  hot.  Have 
the  blower  on  just  before  the  throttle  is  closed. 
Use  your  dampers  and  fire  door  to  avoid  it  all  you 


FIREMEN.  71 

can.  Conditions  vary  so  that  you  cannot  fire  all 
kinds  of  engines  and  trains  without  some  of  it. 
Your  officers  are  reasonable  enough  to  allow  ^for 
the  difference  between  necessary  black  smoke  and 
carelessly  made  black  smoke.  If  you  are  careless 
and  smother  tlie  town  or  the  passengers,  you  may 
expect  to  liear  from  it.  Sometimes  this  is  more 
the  fault  of  the  engineer  than  the  fireman.  In 
order  to  have  smokeless  firing  you  must  have  a 
smokeless  engineer.  Without  an  eugfineer  who  will 
help  5'ou  and  work  to  that  end  you  are  up  against 
a  ))roi)Osition  that  you  should  not  be  held  respon- 
sible for.  Kiglit  here  is  where  harmony  in  the  cab 
imi)rov98  the  service.  There  should  also  be  har- 
monv  with  the  train  crew.  If  the  conductor  stays 
too  long  at  the  register,  or  kills  time  visiting 
around  stations  being  a  good  fellow,  you  may  be 
safe  in  getting  ready  to  make  black  smoke  when 
you  get  the  signal  to  go  or  lose  some  of  your 
})ressure.  A  slow  conductor  or  train  crew  can 
make  more  black  smoke  and  bum  more  coal  than 
the  best  fireman  can  save  or  jirevent. 

If  your  engine  is  not  equipped  with  an  air 
or  steam  bell-ringer  do  not  wait  until  the  engineer 
whistles  for  a  crossing  and  then  get  down  to  |)ut 
in  a  fire  to  avoid  ringing  the  bell.  If  you  should 
strike  something  on  a  crossing  you  will  have  a 
hard  enough  time  to  prove  that  the  heW  was  ring- 
ing. Be  sure  of  it  and  get  in  the  habit.  It  is  a 
good  thing  on  an  engine  to  be  sure. 

Learn  the  time  table  signals  and  orders.  You 
will  be  better  able  to  fire  your  engine  with  econ- 
omy. Sometime  you  mav  be  able  to  prevent  an 
accident  by  saying  "they  are  not  there  yet"  or, 
at  least,  you  can  select  a  good  place  to  get  off. 


72 


FIREMEN. 


Many  an  accident  has  been  prevented  by  fireman 
and  brakeman  knowing  the  orders. 

All  these  little  things  go  to  make  a  good  man 
for  an  engineer  to  have  with  him,  with  all  due 
respect  to  the  engineer.  He  may  have  never 
gotten  by  an  order  but  he  is  liable  tO'  forget. 
It  is  only  when  they  all  forget  that  we  hear  about 
it.  If  a  case  of  this  kind  should  happen  to  you, 
treat  it  confidentially,  and  do  not  say  ''if  it  had 
not  been  for  me  there  would  have  been  an  acci- 
dent last  night"  at  such  a  place.  Keep  that  to 
yourself.  That  is  one  reason  that  they  have  two 
men  in  the  cab,  and  it  is  part  of  your  duty  to 
assist  in  the  safe  and  proper  handling  of  trains. 

Do  your  best. 

ENGINE      NOT      STEAMING — WHY?         ADJUSTMENT      OF 
FRONT  END  ARRANGEMENT. 

One  of  the  first  problems  that  would  naturally 
appeal  tO'  a  fireman,  if  the  engine  does  not  steam 


^ 

M:  J 

kP^^ 

properly,  is  to  reason  the  cause.  Figure  1  will 
serve  to  illustrate  this.  It  does  not  matter  wheth- 
er the  diaphragm  is  back  or  forward  of  the  ex- 
haust pipe,  providing  it  is  not  set  too  close  to 
the  flue  sheet  at  the  top ;  if  it  is,  the  draft  through 
the  upper  flues  will  be  impaired. 


FIREMEN.  73 

In  starting  out  with  clean  grates  and  flues,  you 
should  note  if  the  fire  is  burning  evenly  on  the 
grates ;  if  not  the  diaphragm  should  be  changed 
to  equalize  the  draft  through  the  flues  and  fire. 
Raising  the  diaphrag-ui  increases  the  draft  through 
the  upper  flues  and  on  the  fire  in  the  back  of  the 
box,  and  lowering  it  increases  the  draft  through 
the  bottom  flues  and  the  front  end  of  the  fire  box. 
This  is  the  purpose  of  the  diaphragm  and  when 
you  get  it  in  position  to  burn  the  fire  evenly  on 
the  grates  you  have  done  all  that  you  can  with 
it. 

Now  your  engine  may  burn  the  fire  evenly  but 
does  not  make  the  steam,  and  you  may  want  to 
make  her  sharper  on  her  fire.  You  should  first  ob- 
sei've  if  the  stack,  exhaust  i)iiie  and  nozzle  are  in 
line.  A  quick  waj'  to  determine  this  is,  to  take  a 
stick  and  stand  on  the  boiler  shell  between  the 
headlight  and  stack,  or  behind  the  stack,  and  hold 
the  end  of  the  stick  over  the  inside,  passing  it 
around  the  top  when  the  engine  is  working.  If 
the  exhaust  steam  strikes  it  harder  on  one  side 
than  the  other  you  will  know  that  the  stack  is  not 
in  line,  or  not  filled  by  the  exhaust  steam,  and  the 
partial  vacuum  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  the 
necessaiy  draft  on  the  fire.  Of  course  you  may 
observe  this  from  the  cab  when  the  engine  is  work- 
ing, and  the  stack  may  l)e  filled  sidewise  and  look 
all  right  and  may  not  be  filled  front  or  back.  If 
you  try  the  stick  method  you  will  be  sure  of  itJ 
Sometimes  engines  have  come  from  the  builders 
with  the  stacks  set  back  or  ahead  three  inches. 
If  it  had  been  three  inches  out  sijiewise  it  would 
have  been  noticed  ven^  quickly.  Now  if  we  have 
our  diaphragm  adjusted  properly,  our  stack  in  line 


74 


FIREMEN. 


with  the  exhaust  steam,  and  the  engine  is  not 
sharp  enough  on  her  fire,  raising  the  pipe  or  low- 
ering the  sleeve,  or  both,  will  increase  her  draf£ 
on  the  fire  within  certain  limits.  If  then  you  do 
not  get  results  the  exhaust  pipe  from  the  air  pump 
should  be  examined  to  see  that  it  does  not  strike 
the  flare  on  the  pipe,  or  the  steam  pipes  are  leak- 
ing. If  they  are  in  good  condition,  as  a  last  re- 
sort, you  may  have  to  decrease  the  size  of  the 
nozzle.  But  you  should  aim  to  run  with  as  large 
a  nozzle  as  possible,  consistent  with  steam  making, 
in  order  to  reduce  the  back  pressure  in  the  cylin- 
ders.    It  is  true  that  all  engines  will  not  steam 


riff.  2 

alike,  although  they  may  have  front  end  arrange- 
ments set  the  same.  But  if  the  flues  are  clean, 
and  the  stack  and  exhaust  pipes  are  in  line,  you 
can  use  the  adjustment  of  the  best  steamers  as 
a  guide  to  set  the  others  by,  and  the  changes 
necessary  will  be  slight,  jiroviding  the  valve  gear 
and  cylinders  are  taking  care  of  the  steam  after 
it  is  generated.  A  little  study  on  this  subject 
and  the  results  obtained  by  the  changes  will  make 
you  familiar  with  the  boiler  and  draft  appliances. 
To  make  this  clear  observe  the  figures  2  and  3. 
Figure  2  is  over  drawn  for  this  purpose  and  is 
shown  with  a  pipe  and  sleeve  that  extends  from 


FIREMEN. 


75 


the  base  of  the  stack  to  the  base  of  the  exhaust 
pij^e,  the  dotted  and  broken  lines  representing  tlie 
steam  and  gases  passing  to  the  stack.  Tliis  is 
not  a  very  large  opening  for  the  exhaust  steam  to 
expel  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  front  end; 
and  they  are  not  thrown  out,  the  vacuum  is  not' 
formed  and  the  air  is  not  drawn  through  the 
grates  to  fill  the  vacuum  in  the  front  end.     In 


Figure  ?>  we  have  the  pipe  raised  aljo^o  the  nozzle 
tip  and  the  sleeve  lowered  from  the  base  of  the 
stack  so  that  the  exhaust  steam  will  expel  the 
gases  from  the  front  end  and  a  greater  volume 
o-f  air  will  tiow  through  the  grates  and  fire,  pro- 
moting combustion.  Consider  that  the  nozzle,  i>et- 
ticoat  pipe,  sleeve,  and  stack  should  do  business 
in  the  front  end  the  same  as  the  tubes  and  the 
nozzle  of  the  injector,  and  adjustments  can  be  ob- 
tained that  will  be  satisfactory.  If  the  draft 
cannot  be  made  strong  enough  in  this  manner 
then  the  nozzle  should  be  bushed,  but  on  account  of 
the  effect  of  the  back  pressure  in  the  cylinders 
this  should  only  be  done  when  changing  the  pi^ie 
or  sleeve  will  not  produce  it.  If  you  have  an 
engine  without  a  petticoat  or  draft  pipe,  the  noz- 
zle tip  should  be  as  high  as  the  center  line  of  the 
boiler.    If  it  is  not  an  extension  should  be  placed 


•76  FIREMEN. 

between  the  tip  and  exhaust  pipe- to  bring  it  up 
to  the  required  height.  Engines  without  petti- 
coat pipes  are  imiDroved  by  raising  the  nozzle  tip 
to  this  height. 

"VMien  the  draft  appliances  have  been  adjusted 
to  give  the  best  results  they  should  not  be  changed 
to  remedy  other  defects,  such  as  poor  coal,  bad 
weather,  leaky  flues,  valves  and  cylinder  packing 
blowing,  poor  pumping  or  manipulation  of  the 
throttle  and  reverse  lever,  or  to  shield  a  poor  or 
indifferent  fireman.  It  is  very  convenient  for  the 
engineman  if  he  will  make  a  sketch  mentally  or 
on  paper  of  the  adjustment  of  the  front  end. 
Know  the  size  of  nozzle,  height  of  pipe  above  the 
nozzle  tip,  distance  from  sleeve  to  base  of  stack 
and  height  of  diaphragm.  Then  if  they  are 
changed  or  become  loose  they  can  be  replaced  in 
their  former  position  without  guess  work.  This, 
of  course,  would  apply  only  where  men  are  as- 
signed to  engines  regularly.  If  in  pool  service 
a  similar  record  should  be  kept  at  the  round  house 
by  the  men  having  charge  of  the  adjustment  of 
same. 

WHEEE  THE  STEAM  GOES  AFTER  IT  IS  GENEEATED,  AND 
HOW  DISTEIBUTED. 

Assuming  that  the  adjustment  of  the  draft  ap- 
pliances is  such  that  the  boiler  is  at  its  maximum 
efficiency,  when  the  throttle  valve  is  opened  the 
steam  enters  the  dry  pipe  and  steam  pipes  and  is 
admitted  to  the  steam  chest  or  chamjer.  Where' 
the  admission  to  and  the  exhaust  from  the  cylin- 
der is  controlled  by  the  valve,  as  it  opens  and" 
closes  the  ports  for  the  admission  and  exhaust  of 
the  steam.     Fix  this  in  your  mind  by  cutting  a 


FIREMEN. 


77 


valve  and  seat  out  of  cardboard  or  wood,  or 
marking  the  valve  seat,  steam  jwrts  and  exhaust 
port  on  iDaper  and  using  the  valve  made  of  card- 
board to  move  over  the  drawing.    After  you  have 


made  the  drawing  of  the  valve  seat,  cut  your 
first  valve  to  size  as  shown  in  Fig.  4  without 
lap.  You  will  observe  as  you  move  this  valve 
over  the  seat  that  as  soon  as  one  steam  port  is 
oj^en  for  the  admission  of  steam  the  other  i)ort 
is  open  to  the  exhaust  cavity.  This  was  the  first 
form  of  the  1)  slide  valve,  and  steam  followed  the 
piston  to  the  end  of  the  stroke.  In  other  words, 
each  cylinder  was  filled  with  steam  from  the  boil- 
er twice  every  revolution.  With  a  valve  like  this 
the  eccentric  was  set  at  right  angles  to  the  i)in. 


/^.J 


fi<f.6 


One  of  the  questions  often  asked  is:  ''Wliat  is 
lapl"  The  answer  is  that  it  is  the  amount  of 
valve  that  extends  over  the  outside  edges  of  the 
steam  port  when  the  valve  is  in  the  center  of  its 
seat.    See  Fig.  5.    By  cutting  a  valve  as  shown, 


78  FIREMEN. 

you  will  now  see  that  in  order  to  have  the  steam 
port  open  when  the  piston  is  at  the  beginning  of 
its  stroke,  the  valve  must  be  moved  to  the  posi- 
tion shown  in  Fig.  ()  and  given  lead.  Lead  is  the 
amount  of  opening  of  the  steam  port  when  the 
piston  is  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke.  In  order 
to  get  the  valve  in  that  position,  you  will  have 
to  change  the  position  of  the  eccentric  on  the 
shaft.  If  the  top  and  bottom  rocker  arms  are  of 
equal  length,  the  large  part  of  the  eccentric  should 
be  moved  toward  the  pin  the  amount  of  lap  and 
tlie  desired  lead  opening.  With  this  valve  having 
lai>,  the  steam  can  be  admitted  to  the  cylinder  for 
a  portion  of  the  stroke,  when  the  valve  closes  the 
I3ort  or  cuts  off  the  steam.  This  is  called  the  point 
of  cut  off. 

Now  if  the  cylinders  in  each  of  the  above  cases 
were  of  2-i-inch  stroke,  by  applying  the  valve 
with  the  lap  and  cutting  off  the  steam  at  12 
inches,  or  when  the  piston  had  moved  12  inches 
from  the  end  of  its  stroke,  we  would  have  the 
steam  confined  in  the  cylinder  to>  push  the  j^iston 
to  the  end  of  its  stroke  by  its  expansive  force, 
without  filling  the  cylinder  its  full  length  with 
steam  taken  from  the  boiler,  thereby  using  one- 
half  the  steam  that  we  would  with  a  valve  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  advantage  of  lap  is 
that  you  can  work  steam  expansively.  By  study- 
ing this  out  and  in  making  the  sketch  of  the 
valve  and  seat  yourself,  you  will  become  familiar 
with  construction  of  the  valves  and  seats. 

Observing  the  D  valve,  you  will  note  that  we 
have  steam  chest  pressure  on  top  of  the  valve, 
forcing  it  downward  onto  its  seat.  If  the  lip  of 
the  valve  is  covering  the  steam  port  or  just  closed 


FIREMEN. 


79 


it,  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  is  exerting  a  pres- 
sure upward  or  tending  to  lift  the  valve  from  its 
seat.  We  also  have  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust 
steam  helping  to  lift  the  valve  against  the  pres- 
sure of  the  live  steam  that  is  holding  the  valve 
down.  The  live  steam  being  the  greater,  caused 
friction  on  the  valve  and  seat,  thereby  using 
energy  that  absorbed  some  of  the  power  of  the 
engine.  As  the  locomotive  increased  in  size,  high- 
er pressures  were  carried,  and  larger  ports  and 
valves  were  necessary  to  admit  and  exhaust  the 
steam  to  and  from  the  cylinders.  To  reduce  the 
friction  between  the  valve  and  seat  as  much  as 
possible,  the  back  of  the  valve  was  relieved  from 
the  steam  chest  pressure  by  introducing  a  bal- 


n^.^ 


anced  valve  and  pressure  plate,  whereby  a  por- 
tion of  the  back  of  the  valve  was  enclosed  by 
strips  or  rings,  preventing  the  steam  from  exert- 
ing a  downward  pressure  on  the  part  of  the 
valve  inside  of  the  strips  or  rings.  See  Figs.  T 
and  8.  Holes  were  drilled  through  the  back  of  the 
valve  to  the  exhaust  cavity  to  •  allow  the  steam 
that  might  leak  past  the  strips  or  rings  to  es- 
cape to  the  exhaust  passage  and  not  accumulate 
a  pressure  on  that  part  of  the  valve.    The  strips 


80  FIREMEN. 

are  held  up  against  the  pressure  plate  by  the 
tension  of  the  springs  under  them,  and  the  rings 
are  held  up  by  reason  of  being  cut  and  the 
inside  edge  of  the  ring  beveled  to  fit  the  beveled 
seat  on  the  back  of  the  valve,  and  the  pressure  on 
the  outside  of  the  ring  has  a  tendency  to  force  the 
ring  tight  to  its  beveled  seat  and  fill  in  the 
space  between  the  back  of  the  valve  and  the 
pressure  jilate.  If  a  sirring  or  ring  should  break, 
the  live  steam  would  come  inside  the  part  of  the 
valve  that  was  enclosed  by  the  strips  or  rings  and 
escape  to  the  exhaust  passage  through  the  holes 
in  the  back  of  the  valve,  causing  a  blow. 

Which  side  is  it  that  is  blowing!  We  will 
determine  that  by  placing  the  piston  at  half 
stroke  on  the  side  we  wish  to  test.  Open  the 
throttle  a  little  and  move  the  lever  from  full  gear 
forward  to  full  gear  backward,  and  repeat  this 
operation  on  the  other  side  of  the  engine.  The 
side  that  is  at  half  stroke,  or  with  the  pin  on 
quarter,  when  the  lever  is  the  hardest  to  move 
from  forward  to  backward  motion,  is  usually  the 
valve  that  has  the  broken  spring  or  ring.  By 
placing  the  engine  on  the  quarter  you  get  the 
greatest  travel  of  the  valve  in  that  position-  when 
the  lever  is  moved  from  front  to  back  notch. 

If  we  measure  the  area  of  the  back  of  the  valve 
in  inches,  then  measure  the  area  of  the  back  of 
the  valve  that  is  inside  of  the  balance  strips  or 
rings  in  inches,  and  divide  the  small  area  by  the 
large  one  we  have  the  per  cent  that  the  valve  is 
said  to  be  balanced.  It  is  readily  seen  that  you 
could  not  get  a  perfectly  balanced  valve  of  this 
style,  as  when  working  steam  at  a  long  cut-off  the 
cylinders  are  filled  with  high  pressure  and  the 


FIREMEN.  81 

pressure  of  the  exliaust-steam  coming  in  contact 
with  the  under  side  of  the  valve  tends  to  lift  the 
valve  from  its  seat,  causing  a  blow.  This  usually 
occurs  when  starting  out  of  a  station  or  when 
working  hard.  This  may  also  be  caused  by  the 
valve  closing  the  port  too  early  and  preventing 
the  exhaust  steam  from  getting  out,  and  the  steam 
thus  confined  in  the  cylinder  is  compressed  to  a 
higher  pressure  than  that  in  the  steam  chest,  when 
the  valve  will  be  raised  from  its  seat  and  steam 
will  escape  to  the  exhaust  passage.  Of  course  the 
valve  can  only  lift  until  it  comes  up  to  the  pres- 
sure plate,  but  that  will  be  sufficient  to  cause  a 
bad  blow  when  a  valve  is  overbalanced. 

We  will  now  fix  five  important  things  in  our 
mind  before  we  get  to  the  piston  valve. 

(1)  Steam  entering  the  cylinder  when  the  port 
is  opened  by  the  valve,  is  the  admission. 

(2)  When  the  valve  closes  the  port  it  is  said  to 
cut  off  the  steam,  or  is  known  as  cut-off. 

(3)  Steam  thus  confined  in  the  cylinder,  forcing 
the  piston  to  the  end  of  its  stroke  by  its  expansive 
force,  is  called  expansion. 

(4)  "VVlien  the  steam  port  is  opened  to  the  ex- 
haust passage  it  is  called  the  exhaust. 

(5)  But  as  the  steam  has  been  expanded  in  vol- 
ume it  has  a  lower  pressure,  and  the  amount  of 
steam  that  failed  to  get  out  before  the  port  was 
closed  to  the  exhaust  passage  is  compressed  by  the 
piston  on  its  return  stroke  and  is  called  compres- 
sion. 

If  an  engine  had  excessive  compression  from 
any  cause  and  the  valve  did  not  lift  to  relieve  it, 
cylinder  heads  would  be  liable  to  be  broken. 

You  will  now  observe  that  a  piston  valve  can  be 


82 


FIREMEN. 


more  evenly  balanced  than  the  slide  valve.  Some 
of  them  are  made  hollow  so  that  the  exhaust  steam 
can  escape  through  the  valve  to  the  exhaust  pas- 
sage at  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder  as  well  as  to 
the  exhaust  passage  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder  it 
is  coming  from.  See  Fig.  9.  As  the  piston  valve 
is  a  neat  fit  in  the  valve  chamber  bushing,  there  is 


v-^^^^ 


no  chance  for  it  to  lift  to  relieve  compression  in 
the  cylinders  and  they  are  provided  with  relief 
valves  or  by-pass  valves.  If  by-pass  valves  are 
used  they  are  connected  to  the  admission  ports 
and  the  live  steam  chamber  between  the  piston  on 
each  end  of  the  valve.  The  valves  are  shown  in 
Pig.  10  with  one  of  the  by-pass  valves  broken. 

Each  side  of  the  engine  has  two  exhausts  every 
revolution  and  you  remember  that  steam  was  ad- 


«9.// 


mitted,  then  cut  off  and  expanded  until  the  piston 
had'  nearly  reached  the  end  of  its  stroke,  and  is 
then  allowed  to  escape  to  the  atmosphere  through 
the  exhaust  port  and  stack.    If  the  engine  is  lame, 


FIREMEN.  83 

note  which  side  of  the  engine  the  piston  is  at  the 
end  of  its  stroke  when  the  heavy  exhaust  occurs. 
That  will  indicate  to  you  that  there  was  too  much 
steam  admitted  to  one  end  of  the  cylinder  and  not 
enough  at  the  other,  and  that  the  valve  is  travel- 
ing farther  on  one  side  of  a  line  drawn  through 
the  center  of  the  valve  and  the  center  of  the  seat 
(See  Fig.  11)  than  it  should,  giving  you  a  larger 
l>ort  opening  to  one  end  and  not  opening  the  jDort 
enough  at  the  other  end.  This  can  be  overcome 
and  the  engine  made  to  sound  square  by  lengthen- 
ing or  shortening  the  eccentric  rod  or  rods  to  get 
the  valve  to  travel  the  same  distance  each  side  of 
the  line  and  give  the  same  port  opening  for  each 
end  of  the  cylinder.    If  both  exhausts  on  one  side 


are  heavier  than  on  the  other,  that  would  indicate 
that  the  valve  on  the  heavy  side  is  traveling  far- 
ther than  the  one  on  the  light  side.  To  overcome 
this  you  can  rai»e  the  box  on  the  end  of  the  tum- 
bling shaft  on  the  heavy  side  by  placing  shims  be- 
tween the  box  and  frame,  or  lower  the  box  on  the 
other  end  of  the  tumbling  shaft  whichever  is  the 
most  convenient.  This  is  only  advisable  when 
there  is  slight  difference  in  each  side,  as  the  trou- 
ble may  be  due  to  various  causes,  such  as  unequal 
length  of  link  hangers,  tumbling  shaft  arms 
sprung,  engine  low  on    one    side,    engine  truck 


84 


FIREMEN. 


spring  broken,  or  loose  bolt  in  eccentric  trap  al- 
lowing it  to  open.  To  illustrate  the  difference  in 
the  slide  and  piston  valves  we  will  refer  to  Fig. 
12,  which  shows  the  slide  valve  with  the  front 
port  slightly  opened  and  the  marks  on  the  valve 


/V^./eJ 


rod  made  with  a  tram  from  a  tixed  point  on  the 
cylinder  casting  that  indicate  to  the  valve  setter 
tiie  position  of  the  valve  at  all  tim6s,  after  the 
cover  has  been  placed  on  the  steam  chest,  in  which 
1  and  2  represent  the  admission  edges  of  the 
valve,  and  3  and  4  represent  the  exhaust  edges. 
Fig.  13  represents  a  i)iston  valve  with  inside  or 
internal  admission  which  changes  the  position  of 
the  edges  of  the  valve,  also  the  direction  of  its 


/?^/<^ 


movement,  which  is  directly  opposite  that  of  the 
slide  or  piston  valve  with  outside  admission,  as 
shown  in  Figs.  12  and  14.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  marks  on  the  valve  rod  are  also  changed 
in  their  position.    The  inside  edges  of  rings  3  and 


FIREMEN. 


85 


4  are  the  admission  edges  of  the  valve  and  the 
outside  edges  of  rings  1  and  2  are  the  exhaust 
edges  of  the  valve.  The  valve  in" Fig.  13  could  be 
given  the  same  movement  as  in  Figs.  12  and  14 
by  changing  the  position  of  the  eccentrics  on  the 
shaft  and  still  use  the  indirect  rocker  or  motion. 
But  it  is  usually  more  convenient  to  employ  a 
rocker  with  the  valve  arm  turned  down  opposite 
the  link  arm.  This  leaves  the  eccentrics  in  the 
same  joosition  as  they  were  with  the  outside  admis- 
sion valve  and  indirect  rocker,  but  gives  a  direct 
motion  to  the  valve  with  internal  admission  as  the 
valve  rod  and  the  eccentric  rod  are  both  traveling 


/^./J 


in  the  same  direction,  then  we  Iiave  a  direct  mo- 
tion valve  gear  for  this  style  of  piston  valve.  Fig. 
15  shows  a  piston  valve  and  cylinder,  internal  ad- 
mission. The  arrows  indicate  the  passage  of  the 
steam.  Fig.  16  shows  a  valve  chamber  bushing 
for  a  piston  valve.  The  longitudinal  strips  or 
bridges  are  not  to  make  separate  ports  as  is  some- 
times inferred.     Their  purpose  is  to  strengthen 


86  FIREMEN.  -^ 

the  bushing  and  prevent  the  packing  rings  in  the 
valve  from  springing  past  the  edges  of  the  ports 
■while  traveling  over  them.  The  bridges  in  the 
lower  side  of  the  bushing  are  wider  than  the  oth- 
ers to  insure  sufficient  bearing  where  the  ends  of 
the  rings  are  held  in  ])lace  by  dowels  or  stops  that 
are  i)laced  in  the  packing  ring  groove  in  the  valve 
to  prevent  the  rings  from  turning. 

As  the  piston  valve  can  not  lift  from  its  seat  as 
the  D-valve  can  when  compression  is  greater  than 
the  initial  pressure,  provision  is  made  to  relieve 


oanaoQ 

the  strain  and  prevent  the  fracture  of  cylinder 
heads  by  placing  compression  or  relief  valves  in 
the  cylinder  heads  adjusting  the  springs  to  the  de- 
sired pressure.  When  the  pressure  exceeds  the 
resistance  of  the  spring  the  valve  is  unseated  and' 
the  pressure  relieved.  Fig.  15  shows  relief  valves 
in  cylinder  heads,  also  a  style  of  by-pass  valve  that 
opens  when  the  compression  exceeds  the  pressure 
that  is  admitted  into  the  valve  chamber  between 
the  pistons  of  the  piston  valve,  when  the  compres- 
sion opens  the  valve,  instead  of  the  steam  escap- 
ing to  the  atmosphere  it  flows  through  the  passage 
into  the  valve  chamber  and  effects  that  much  econ- 
omy. Various  styles  of  by-pass  valves  are  used 
on  piston  valve  simple  and  comi^ound  engines.  By- 
pass and  relief  valves  of  adequate  proportions  are 
beginning  to  be  appreciated  on  this  class  of  power. 


FIREMEN. 


87 


POSITION   OF    ECCENTRICS. 
LAP  AND  LEAD. 


The  preceding  has  explained  the  functions 
of  the  valve;  How  to  make  the  valve  travel 
over  the  ports,  admit  and  exhaust  the  steam  from 


>^./Z 


the  cylinder  is  our  next  problem.  Fig.  17  shows, 
the  position  of  eccentric  with  valve  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4  with  indirect  rocker.  When  lap  was  added 
to  edges  of  the  valve  the  eccentrics  were  advanced 
toward  the  pin  the  amount  of  lap  and  lead  de- 
sired to  bring  the  valve  in  proper  position  to  ad- 
mit steam  to  the  cylinder,  when  the  rocker  arms 


/2j?./<9 


are  of  equal  length,  the  advance  of  the  eccentric 
on  the  shaft  is  equal  to  the  lap  and  lead  of  the 
valve.     See  Fig.  18. 

If  the  piston  valve  is  used  with  outside  admis- 
sion, no  change  in  eccentrics  is  necessary,  Fig.  19. 
When  the  ]uston  valve  is  used  with  inside  admis- 
sion the  valve  would  have  to  move  in  the  opposite 


88 


FIREMEN. 


direction  to  open  and  close  the  port  with  this  in- 
direct rocker  and  the  eccentrics  would  be  changed 
tO'  the  position  shown  in  Fig,  20. 

Instead  of  being  advanced  toward  the  pin  the 
amount  of  lap  and  lead  they  would  be  set  at  right 


/v^.i*^ 


angles  to  pin  and  advanced  away  from  the  pin  the 
same  distance,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  20 ;  this  is  all 
indirect  motion  because  the  eccentric  rod  is  travel- 
ing in  one  direction  and  the  valve  rod  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  By  a  direct  motion  we  mean 
that  eccentric  rod  and  valve  rod  are  both  moving 
in  the  same  direction,  as  in  Fig.  21.  Fig.  22 
shows  an  indirect  and  a  direct  rocker.    Note  that 


/}^^/ 


ri£,.22 


the  direct  rocker  has  the  valve  ann  turned  down 
opposite  the  link  ann  and  moves  in  the  same  di- 
rection, while  the  indirect  rocker,  link  arm  and 
valve  arm  move  in  opposite  directions. 

The  foregoing  diagrams  show  how  the  motion 
of  the  valve  may  be  changed  by  placing  the  eccen- 


FIREMEN.  89 

tries  on  the  shaft  in  relation  to  the  pin  or  by  the 
use  of  the  direct  rocker.  ^Vith  direct  rocker,  in- 
ternal admission,  the  eccentrics  are  in  the  same 
position  as  with  the  indirect  rocker  and  outside 
admission  valve. 

The  marks  shown  on  the  valve  rod  or  stem  are 
simply  to  show  the  position  of  the  valve  after  it  is 
placed  in  the  steam  chest  or  valve  chamber.  With 
the  slide  valve  the  mark  is  usually  made  from  a 
prick  punch  mark  on  the  cylinder  casting  and 
scribed  on  the  rod  or  stem  when  the  valve  is 
Ijushed  up  against  a  piece  of  tin  placed  in  the 
steam  port  before  the  cover  is  put  on  the  chest. 
"With  a  piston  valve  the  edge  of  the  ring  on  the 
admission  side  is  taken  as  the  edge  of  the  valve. 
Hence  the  difference  in  the  marks  for  inside  and 
outside  admission  piston  valves.  Note  that  they 
are  reversed,  usually  plugs  are  tapped  into  the 
valve  chamber  so  the  edges  of  the  rings  of  the 
valve  can  be  seen  when  they  are  opposite  the 
loorts.  AMien  tlie  plugs  are  removed,  when  setting 
valves  or  obtaining  marks  for  this  purpose,  a  few 
explanations  are  next  in  order.  Lap  is  the  amount 
of  valve  that  extends  over  the  edges  of  the  steam 
ports  when  the  valve  is  in  the  center  of  its  seat 
and  allows  us  to  work  steam  expansively.  Lead 
is  the  amount  of  opening  of  the  steam  port  when 
the  piston  is  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke  and  is 
increased  as  the  lever  is  hooked  up  in  the  cjuad- 
rant  in  proportion  to  the  radius  of  the  link.  See 
Fig.  19  and  note  that  the  link  block  is  moved  far- 
ther away  from  the  axle  when  it  is  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  link,  than  when  at  the  ends.  This  shows 
how  the  lead  is  increased  by  hooking  the  engine 
up  or  working  in  a  short  cut  off. 


90  FIREMEN. 

Inside  lap  of  a  valve  would  be  the  portion  of 
the  valve  that  extends  over  the  inside  edges  of 
the  steam  ports  when  the  valve  is  in  the  center  of 
its  seat,  and  delays  the  exhaust  or  prevents  the 
steam  from  getting  out  of  the  cylinder,  and  would 
increase  the  eomi)ression  or  back  pressure.  Inside 
clearance  of  a  valve  is  the  amount  of  opening  of 
the  steam  ix)rts  to  the  exhaust  cavity,  when  the 
valve  is  on  the  center  of  its  seat,  and  hastens  the 
release  or  exhaust.  When  the  valve  is  line  and 
line  it  means  that  the  inside  or  exhaust  edges  of 
the  valve  are  in  line  with  inside  edges  of  the  steam 
ports  when  the  valve  is  in  the  center  of  its  seat, 
just  the  same  as  the  outside  edges  of  the  valve 
were  line  and  line  in  Fig.  4. 

Now  the  eccentrics  are  secured  to  the  axle  in  a 
certain  position  in  relation  to  the  pin  and  move 
the  valve  in  proportion  to  the  throw  of  the  eccen- 
tric and  length  of  rocker  ann,  this  gives  what  is 
termed  the  travel  of  the  valve.  If  the  valve  trav- 
els farther  on  one  side  of  a  line  drawn  vertically 
through  the  center  of  the  valve  and  its  seat  the 
travel  should  be  adjusted  by  lengthening  or  short- 
ening the  eccentric  rods,  as  the  case  may  require, 
but  the  throw  of  the  eccentric  and  its  relation  to 
the  pin  will  remain  the  same  until  the  position  of 
the  eccentric  is  changed  on  the  shaft.  If  the  lead 
is  desired  to  be  increased  the  eccentric  must  be 
moved  in  the  direction  to  hasten  the  admission  of 
steam  to  the  cylinder,  which  will  haLten  all  other 
functions  of  the  valve  accordingly.  Eemember 
that  lead  is  the  opening  of  the  jwrt  when  the  pis- 
ton is  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke,  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  port,  after  the  piston  has  commenced  its 
stroke  is  the  port  opening.    If  the  valve  does  not 


FIREMEN.  91 

open  the  port,  when  the  piston  is  at  the  beginning 
of  the  stroke,  the  engine  is  said  to  be  blind  or  set 
with  negative  lead,  the  amount  that  the  valve  ex- 
tends over  the  edge  of  the  port  in  that  jxDsition. 
If  .the  port  was  open  1-32  of  an  inch  it  would  be 
teiined  1-32  inch  lead  i^ositive  and  if  the  valve 
edge  extended  over  the  edge  of  the  port  1-32  of 
au  inch  she  would  be  blind  1-32  inch  or  said  to 
have  1-32  inch  negative  lead.  Xo  rule  can  be  given 
to  set  valve  on  all  classes  of  engines,  as  the  lead 
varies  in  proi>ortion  to  the  radius  of  the  link,  and 
if  the  radius  is  a  long  one,  the  lead  would  not  in- 
crease to  the  extent  that  it  would  with  a  short  ra- 
dius link;  therefore,  it  is  usually  left  to  those  in 
charge  to  set  the  valves  to  obtain  the  highest  effi- 
ciency from  the  engine. 

It  is  found  that  5-32  to  3-16  lead  opening  in  the 
running  cut  off,  or  where  the  engine  does  most  of 
her  work  is  a  desirable  motion  if  cutting  off  at  5, 
6  or  7  inches  of  steam;  but  on  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  demonstrated  that  an  engine  without  lead 
is  preferred  for  the  reasons  that  the  lead  hastens 
the  admission  cut-off  exhaust  and  compression  and 
if  the  engine  is  on  the  center  on  one  side  the  lead 
opening  that  she  may  have  will  retard  the  piston 
in  completing  its  stroke  and  when  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke  will  exert  no  rotative  force  to  the  crank 
until  it  has  moved  from  the  end  of  the  stroke  far 
enough  to  get  the  pin  below  or  above  the  axle,  and 
the  exhaust  will  take  place  earlier  on  the  other 
side  or  the  side  that  is  on  the  quarter,  thereby 
losing  the  advantage  of  the  steam  behind  the  pis- 
ton on  one  side  and  blocking  ahead  of  the  piston 
on  the  other,  which  condition  will  not  increase  the 
draw  bar  pull  or  tractive  power   of   the    engine. 


92  FIREMEN. 

Where  practicable  in  freight  service,  engines 
should  be  set  nearly  the  same  in  both  motions  and 
in  passenger  service  it  is  advantageous  to  set 
eacli  motion  different,  for  instance:  the  forward 
motion  may  be  set  with  lead  or  blind  and  the  back 
motion  line  and  line. 

Various  reasons  have  been  advanced  why  valves 
should  be  set  with  lead  but  the  tendency  is  to  re- 
duce it  and  in  some  instances  to  have  the  forward 
motion  set  blind  or  with  negative  lead  from 
1-16  to  7-32  inch,  and  the  back  motion  line  and 
line.  A  comparison  of  two  engines  of  the  same 
class  set  as  above  would  be  necessary  to  determine 
the  merit  of  one  over  the  other,  but  it  is  worth 
the  expense  of  making  the  test. 

The  above  is  not  written  with  a  view  of  having 
the  enginemen  set  the  valves  on  the  engines,  but 
as  a  subject  well  worthy  of  their  consideration  and 
thorough  understanding  of  the  distribution  and 
effective  steam  pressure. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  valves  and  eccen- 
trics, it  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  as  the  ec- 
centric rod  is  brought  opposite  the  link  block,  the 
more  work  is  perfonned  by  that  eccentric  and  the 
greater  is  the  travel  of  the  valve. 

A  word  of  explanation  why  the  lever  should  not 
be  placed  in  or  near  full  gear,  when  throttle  is 
closed  at  high  speed.  If  we  take  a  modern  engine 
with  a  valve  travel  of  5Vo  inches,  the  valve  will 
possibly  weigh  150  pounds;  a  wheel  72  inches  in 
diameter  will  make  280  revolutions  per  minute  at 
a  speed  of  60  miles  per  hour.  When  the  lever  is 
in  the  corner  the  eccentric  must  push  and  jmll  the 
valve  over  its  seat  280  times  5i  -  inches  or  over 
128  feet  i^er  minute,  in  addition  to  stopping  and 


FIREMEN.  93 

starting  the  valve  560  times  per  minute.  By 
keeping  the  lever  notched  up  where  it  feels  easy 
when  the  throttle  is  closed  the  valve  will  not  travel 
as  far  and  the  work  will  be  divided  on  both  eccen- 
trics in  proiDortion  to  the  iX)sition  of  the  link  block 
in  the  link,  and  may  prevent  hot  and  broken  eccen- 
trics, broken  valves  and  yoRes  and  excessive  wear 
on  the  valve  gear.  There  will  be  time  enough  to 
get  the  lever  down  as  the  speed  is  reduced  and  the 
advantage  gained  is  obvious. 

EODS   AND   WEDGES. 

With  a  boiler  of  steam  generating  capacity,  and 
a  valve  motion  that  will  distribute  the  steam  prop- 
erly when  the  lever  is  hooked  down  in  starting  the 
train,  if  there  is  lost  motion  in  the  rods  and  boxes, 
it  develops  into  "a  pound  that  is  annoying  tO'  the 
enginemen  and  detrimental  to  the  machinery.  In 
order  to  improve  conditions  we  should  first  ascer- 
tain its  location  and  apply  the  remedy.  In  keying 
the  rods  on  an  engine,  if  you  will  place  her  on  the 
center  on  the  side  you  wish  to  key,  the  other  side 
will  be  on  the  quarter.  Key  all  the  rods  on  the 
center  except  the  front  end  of  the  main  rod.  That 
should  be  keyed  on  the  quarter.  If  you  have  an 
engine  on  the  right  foi'ward  center  you  can  key 
the  front  end  of  the  left  main  rod,  then  key  all  the 
rods  on  the  right  side,  except  the  front  end  of  the 
main  rod.  Move  the  engine  to  foi-ward  center  on 
the  left  side  and  key  the  front  end  of  the  right 
main  rod  and  all  other  rods  on  the  left  side  in 
that  position.  "Wliy?  If  the  main  pin  is  round  it 
does  not  matter  in  what  position  the  engine  is 
placed  to  key  the  back  end  of  the  main  rod,  but 


94 


FIREMEN. 


the  tendency  is  for  the  pin  to  wear  out  of  round, 
and  if  keyed  on  the  center  so  it  can  be  moved  on 
the  pin  it  will  be  keyed  so  it  is  loose  on  the  largest 
l)art,  therefore,  it  is  readily  seen  that  by  keying 
the  back  end  of  the  main  rod  and  all  side  rods  on 
the  center  you  are  keying  so  they  will  not  pinch 
or  seize  the  pin,  and  the  front  end  of  the  main  rod 
should  be  keyed  on  the  quarter  for  the  same  rea- 
son. If  the  side  rods  are  free  when  passing  the 
dead  centers  you  need  not  fear  hot  bearings  on 
account  of  improper  keying. 

When  the  pin  is  on  center  and  steam  is  admit- 


Fi^.23 


Fi^.S'f 


ted  to  the  cylinder,  the  pressure  on  the  piston  is 
exerted  on  the  pin  but  does  not  exert  any  rotative 
force  on  the  wheels  until  the  pin  is  above  or  below 
the  center  line,  the  rotative  force  increasing  from 
the  center  to  the  quarter  and  decreasing  from  the 
quarter  to  the  center  If  the  engine  is  always  run- 
ning in  one  direction,  the  pin  will  wear  out  of 
round  on  one  side  of  the  pin  only,  but  if  running 
in  both  directions  the  ]nn  will  wear  on  both  sides 
and  become  oval.  A  good  way  to  prove  this  is  to 
make  a  mark  on  the  pin  and  watch  the  rod  push  it 


FIREMEN. 


95 


while  the  piston  is  making  one  stroke  and  pull  it 
while  making  the  other,  but  the  pressure  is  on  one 
side  of  the  pin  when  running  in  either  direction 
and  is  wearing  that  side  only.  See  Fig.  23  show- 
ing small  diameter  when  keyed  on  quarter.  See 
Fig.  24  showing  large  diameter  when  keyed  on 
center. 

The  reason  for  taking  down  the  side  rods  on  the 
opposite  side,  when  one  is  broken,  is  apparent; 
also  why  the  top  guide  wears  most  when  the  en- 
gine is  mnning  ahead. 

The  engineman  that  puts  the  engine  on  the  quar- 
ter and  has  the  fireman  work  the  lever  with  steam 
in  the  cylinder  while  he  drives  down  the  key  to 
take  out  the  pound  in  the  back  end  of  a  main  rod 
is  taking  long  chances  on  melting  the  babbitt  or 
causing  a  pin  to  mn  hot,  if  the  pin  is  not  round. 

Some  Baldwin  engines  have  the  front  end  rod 
straps  as  shown  in  Fig.  25  and  the  strap  bolt  must 
be  loosened  to  key  up  the  brass.    If  you  desire  to 


key  up  an  engine  with  this  kind  of  a  strap,  loosen 
u])  the  bolt  before  you  try  to  key  it,  or  make  a 
report  to  have  the  front  end  of  main  rod  brass 
filed.  Engineers  have  often  reported  brasses  filed 
because  they  did  not  understand  how  to  key  this 
kind  of  a  rod. 


96 


FIREMEN. 


By  keeping  up  the,  wedges  so  the  driving  boxes 
will  not  pound,  the  rods  will  run  longer  without 
the  brasses  getting  loose  in  the  straps.  If  setting 
wedges  up  is  a  i>art  of  the  engineer's  duty,  a  very 
convenient  method  of  setting  them  up  without  get- 
ting them  too  tight  is  to  place  the  engine  near  the 
top  quarter  on  the  right  side,  the  lever  in  forward 
motion,  cut  out  the  driver  brake,  and  set  tender 


brake  or  block  the  drivers,  then  by  opening  the 
throttle  a  little,  steam  will  enter  the  back  end  of 
the  cylinder  and  pull  the  crank  pin  ahead  (s^e 
Fig.  26),  thereby  pulling  the  driving  box  up 
against  the  shoe  and  leaving  a  space  between  the 
back  of  the  box  and  jaw  free  to  push  up  the  wedge. 
Loosen  the  wedge  bolt  and  with  a  small  bar  as  a 
lever  on  the  binder  or  pedestal  braces,  push  up 
the  wedge  until  it  has  filled  the  space  between  the 
box  and  the  jaw.  Tighten  up  the  wedge  bolts  and 
move  the  engine  aliead  one-fourth  of  a  revolution 
and  repeat  the  oj^eration  on  the  left  side.  Simple, 
isn't  it?  The  reason  that  the  top  quarter  is  speci- 
fied is  because  the  work  may  be  done  without  get- 
ting under  the  engine  and  the  counter  balance  will 


FIREMEN.  97 

not  interfere  with  getting  at  the  wedge  bolts.  ,Be- 
fore  setting  up  the  wedges  it  is  advisable  to  have 
the  binder  bolts  tight,  as  the  loose  binder  bolt  will 
often  cause  a  i^ound  of  the  box  same  as  a  loose 
wedge. 

LUBEICATOBS,    PKINCIPLE    OF    WORKING    AND    DEFECTS. 

It  is  good  practice  to  oil  the  engine  systematic- 
ally before  leaving  a  terminal.  But  before  taking 
up  the  subject  of  lubrication  let  us  familiarize 
ourselves  with  the  construction,  operation  and  de- 
fects of  the  lubricator  and  briefly  consider  the 
•principle  on  which  it  works. 

If  we  take  the  ordinary  lubricator  and  cut  it  in 
two,  we  have  it  as  shown  in  Fig.  27.  When  filled 
with  oil  and  the  filling  plug  screwed  to  its  seat  and 
water  valve  closed  at  the  back  of  the  cup,  there  is 
no  opening  for  the  oil  to  get  out  cf  the  oil  reser- 
voir only  through  the  pipe  leading  to  the  sight- 
feed  glass  past  the  regulating  valves,  and  we  have 
no  pressure  to  force  the  oil  out  until  the  water 
valve  is  opened.  The  water  from  the  condensing 
chamber  flows  past  the  water  valve  down  the  pipe 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cup.  The  oil  being  the  light- 
er, floats  on  the  water  and  flows  into  the  pipe  lead- 
ing to  the  sight-feed  glass  as  fast  as  the  openings 
at  the  regulating  valves  would  relieve  the  oil,  and 
the  water  being  supplied  by  the  steam  condensing 
in  the  chamber  above  the  cup  and  flowing  into  the 
oil  reservoir  as  fast  as  the  oil  is  fed  out. 

The  small  pocket  at  the  end  of  the  pipe  leading 
from  the  condensing  chamber  is  to  prevent  the 
water  from  being  all  drawn  out  of  the  cup  when  it 
is  drained  before  refilling,  and  also  to  keep  the  oil 


98 


FIREMEN. 


I'ram  backing  up  in  the  pipe  when  the  cup  is  being 
filled,  as  the  oil  floats  on  the  water  in  this  pocket. 
The  pocket  directly  above  it  is  for  the  purpose  of 
providing  an  air  chamber  by  trapping  the  air  that 
is  above  the  oil  when  the  oil  level  comes  in  contact 


with  the  lower  «}dge  of  the  partition,  when  the  cup 
is  being  filled. 

This  makes  an  air  or  expansion  chamber  and 
prevents  damage  to  the  lubricator  when  it  is  filled 
with  cold  oil  and  left  with  the  valves  closed.  The 
oil  exi)anding,  as  it  becomes  warm,  might  bulge  or 
break  the  cup  if  there  was  no  provision  made  for 
the  expansion. 


FIREMEN. 


99 


Now,  if  we  had  a  lubricator,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
28  opening  the  steam  valve  on  the  connection  at 
the  condensing  chamber  and  the  water  valve,  we 
would  have  a  pressure  to  force  the  oil  out  of  the 
cup  equal  to  the  steam  pressure  and  the  weight  of 
the  water  in  the  condenser  above  the  level  of  the 
oil  in  the  cup,  which  would  allow  the  oil  to  flow  out 
of  the  feed  valve  nipples  in  a  stream  as  soon  as 


there  was  the  least  opening  at  the  regulating 
valves.  This  is  similar  to  the  conditions  when  the 
lubricator  has  an  enlarged  choke  plug  or  an  equal- 
izing tube  stopped  up. 


100 


FIREMEN. 


In  order  to  complete  the  illustration,  we  now 
refer  to  Fig.  29  and  find  that  the  pipes  that  lead 
from  the  condensing  chamber  to  the  small  cham- 
bers at  the  top  of  the  sight-feed  glasses  and  the 
connection  to  the  oil  pii^  is  obstructed  by  a  plug 


'T.Simm  ctjtit 


FiQ.30 


or  choker  (see  Fig.  30)  with  a  very  small  hole  in 
it.  This  plug  is  to  prevent  the  steam  that  flows 
from  the  condenser  through  the  pipe  or  equalizing 
tube  to  the  chamber  above  the  sight-feed  glasses 
from  escaping  too  rapidly. 

The  choke  plug,  or  choker,  only  allows  a  small 
jet  of  steam  to  escape  and  the  pressure  in  the 


t'lREMEl^.  101 

lubricator  is  equalized.  Therefore,  we  have  the 
ditTerence  in  the  pressure  equal  to  the  head  of 
water  in  the  condenser  to  force  the  oil  through  the 
sight-feed  nipples.  This  difference  in  pressure 
and  the  buoyancy  of  the  oil  causes  the  oil  to  rise 
through  the  water  in  the  sight-feed  glasses  and 
chamber  at  the  top  of  same  to  the  level  of  the 
water  which  is  as  high  as  the  hole  in  the  choke 
plug. 

The  steam  from  the  condensing  chamber  flowing 
through  the  equalizing  tube  and  choke  plug  car- 
ries the  oil  to  the  oil  pij^e  and  forces  it  to  the 
steam  chest  as  long  as  the  pressure  at  the  lubri- 
cator end  of  the  pipe  is  the  greatest.  This  is  the 
principle  on  which  the  sight-feed  lubricator  works 
and  the  action  is  practically  the  same  with  the 
equalizing  tubes  on  the  outside  or  inside  of  the 
condensing  chamber. 

Now,  if  we  fill  our  lubricator  and  open  the 
steam  valve  to  the  condensing  chamber  wide  open, 
the  steam  will  flow  into  the  condensing  chamber 
and  equalizing  tulles.  The  steam  around  the  out- 
side of  the  tubes  will  condense  until  the  water 
rises  to  the  top  of  the  pipe  and  the  steam  that  has 
passed  down  the  tubes  will  condense  and  fill  the 
sight-feed  glasses  and  chambers  above  them  with 
water,  level  with  the  hole  in  the  choke  plugs.  The 
small  jet  of  steam  that  flows  through  the  opening 
in  the  choke  plug  will  carry  the  water  produced 
from  the  condensation  to  the  oil  j^ipe. 

Xow,  if  we  open  the  water  valve  wide,  the 
water  from  the  condensing  chamber  will  flow  into 
the  oil  reservoir  and  force  the  oil  to  the  top  and 
into  the  pipes  leading  to  the  chambers  under  the 
sight-feed  glasses.    The  regulating  valves  are  for 


102  FIREMEN. 

the  purpose  of  adjusting  the  openings  in  the  nip- 
ples to  allow  'the  oil  to  feed  up  through  the  water 
in  the  sight-feed  glasses  fast  enough  to  meet  the 
requirements  or  the  service. 

If  we  find  that  the  oil  is  feeding  very  much 
faster  through  one  of  the  sight-feeds  than  the 
other  with  the  same  opening  at  the  regulating 
valves  the  reason  for  it  must  be  that  there  is  less 
]iressure  in.the  chamber  above  that  glass,  due  very; 
likely  to  the  equalizing  tube  on  that  side  being 
partly  stopped  uj)  or  the  hole  in  the  choke  plug 
worn  so  large  that  the  steam  from  the  equalizing 
tube  would  not  maintain  an  equal  pressure  on  the 
water  in  the  glass  and  chamber  above  it.  If  the 
choke  plug  was  loose  or  missing,  the  same  results 
would  be  obtained.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  trouble 
is  in  that  part  of  the  lubricator. 

Should  the  oil  escape  out  of  the  cup  in  any 
other  manner  than  through  the  sight-feed  glasses, 
the  trouble  would  veiy  likely  be  found  in  the  par- 
tition that  separates  ^he  condenser  from  the  oil 
resei'voir,  or  a  sand  hole  leading  into  the  water 
passage  above  or  below  the  water  valve,  or  the 
plug  above  the  i)ipe  leaking.  If  such  is  the  case, 
the  oil  would  rise  to  the  top  of  the  water  in  the 
condensing  chamber  and  flow  through  the  equaliz- 
ing tubes,  through  the  chokers  to  the  oil  pipes 
leading  to  the  steam  chests.  This  would  cause 
the  loss  of  oil  and  its  disappearance  would  be 
noticeable  only  by  the  observance  of  the  oil  gauge 
glass. 

When  this  defect  exists,  and  you  fill  the  lubri- 
cator several  hours  before  you  go  out,  if  the  oil  is 
all  gone  when  you  come  to  the  enaine,  do  not  think 
that  some  one  has  drained  your  lubricator  to  make 


FIREMEN.  103 

an  oil  record.    Better  have  it  tested  and  tlie  defect 
remedied. 

If  the  lubricator  feeds  for  a  short  time  after 
being  filled  and  then  water  flows  up  through  the 
glass  instead  of  oil,  this  defect  is  due  to  a  hole  iri 
the  oil  pipe  leading  to  the  chamber  under  the  nip- 
ple, or  a  loose  pipe,  and  oil  is  fed  until  the  dis- 
placement of  oil  in  the  reservoir  allows  the  water 
to  come  up  to  the  opening  in  the  pipe,  when  the 
water  is  fed  through  the  glass.  The  only  thing  to 
do  in  this  case  is  to  use  the  auxiliary  oilers,  or 
drain  the  cup  partly  and  refill  with  oil,  which  will 
last  until  the  water  again  raises  to  the  defect  in 
the  passage  or  pipe.  Have  it  repaired  when  you 
get  in. 

If  the  choke  plug  becomes  stopped  up,  it  can 
usually  be  blown  out  by  closing  the  steam  valve  on 
the  lubricator,  opening  the  drain  cock  and  then 
opening  the  throttle.  The  steam  from  the  steam 
chest  will  flow  up  through  the  pipe  and  blow  the 
obstmction  out  of  the  plug.  If  the  nipple  above  a 
sight-feed  regulating  valve  is  stopped  up,  close  all 
other  regulating  valves  and  water  valve.  Leave 
the  regulating  valve,  that  will  not  feed,  open. 
Open  the  drain  cock  and  steam  will  flow  from  the 
condensing  chamber  through  the  equalizing  tube, 
forcing  the  water  in  the  glass  down  through  the 
nipple  past  the  regulating  valve,  thereby  removing 
the  obstruction.  It  is  best  to  always  open  the 
steam  valve  first  and  close  it  last;  the  water  in 
the  glasses  will  remain  clearer  and  less  trouble 
will  be  experienced  with  the  lubricator. 

"Wlien  the  cup  becomes  warmed  up,  keep  the 
steam  and  water  valve  wide  open  and  see  that  the 
steam  pipe  from  the  boiler  to  lubricator  connec- 


104  FIREMEN. 

tions  is  as  large  as  the  specificatiors  call  for,  and 
that  oil  pipes  leading  to  the  steam  chest  connec- 
tions have  no  abrupt  bends  that  will  choke  the 
opening  in  the  i>ipe  or  form  pockets  for  oil  or 
water. 

LUBRICATING   VALVES  AND   CYLINDERS. 

Valve  oil  has  a  fire  test  of  600  degrees  and 
should  never  be  used  as  a  lubricant  on  a  cold 
bearing  as  the  bearing  will  have  to  be  warmed 
before  the  oil  will  feed.  It  should,  therefore,  be 
used  only  for  where  it  was  originally  intended, 
valves,  cylinders,  and  air  pumps.  To  get  the  best 
results  we  should  know  the  amount  necessaiy  to 
proi3erly  lubricate  the  parts.  This  is  the  point 
where  the  enginemen  and  the  mechanical  officers 
sometimes  ditfer  in  opinion  and  where  confidence 
in  judgment  is  to  be  displayed. 

One  pint  of  valve  oil  contains  about  6,600  drops 
when  fed  through  a  lubricator.  Five  drops  per 
minute  fed  to  each  cylinder  and  one  drop  per  min- 
ute to  the  air  pump  usually  ought  to  properly  lu- 
bricate them.  At  this  rate  a  pint  of  valve  oil 
would  last  about  ten  hours.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  engines  that  are  able  to  be  run  on  less 
very  successfully,  while  on  some  of  the  heavier  en- 
gines or  compounds  it  may  be  necessary  to  increase 
that  amount. 

Is  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  oil  sup- 
plied to  the  valve  seats  and  cylinders  of  a  locomo^ 
tive  a,bove  the  amount  tliat  adheres  to  the  valve 
seats,  cylinder  walls  and  packing  ring  is  thrown 
out  of  tiie  stack  and  serves  to  clog  up  tlie  exhaust 
pipes  and  is  of  no  value  as  a  lubricant? 

With  a  high  steam  chest  pressure,  steam  con- 


FIREMEN.  105 

denses  in  the  oil  pipe  and  the  pressure  from  the 
lubricator  does  not  always  force  the  oil  into  the 
steam  chest  as  it  goes  up  through  the  sight-feed 
glass  drop  by  drop,  but  the  oil  is  held  in  suspen- 
sion with  the  water  in  the  oil  pipe  until  the  steam 
chest  pressure  is  reduced,  when  the  pressure  from 
the  lubricator  forces  it  to  the  surfaces  it  is  in- 
tended to  lubricate. 

Some  enginemen,  making  long  runs  without 
shutting  off  steam  or  when  the  valves  begin  to 
get  dry,  ease  off  on  the  throttle  to  reduce  the 
steam  chest  pressure  and  allow  the  oil  to  go  to 
the  valvG  seat.  It  takes  but  an  instant  and, 
more  frequently,  time  is  gained  rather  than  lost 
by  doing  so.  Try  it  and  satisfy  yourself  if  it  is 
a  good  practice.  When  the  throttle  is  wide  operi 
and  the  valve  travel  is  short,  the  steam  port 
openings  are  not  sufficient  to  cause  fluctuations  in 
the  steam  chest  pressure  and  the  oil  is  held  in  the 
oil  pipes,  but  when  the  throttle  is  partly  closed 
the  pressure  in  the  steam  chest  is  less  than  the 
lubricator  pressure  and  the  oil  is  forced  into  the 
chest. 

In  oiling  the  other  parts  of  the  engine  the  rod 
oil  cups  should  be  filled  with  clean  oil  and  care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  spout  of  the  oil  can 
clean  while  doing  so.  If  the  spout  of  the  can  is 
used  to  stir  up  the  waste  on  the  top  of  the  driving 
box,  or  to  scrape  dirt  from  an  oil  hole,  and  is 
then  introduced  to  the  rod  cup  there  is  liability 
ot  grit  or  foreign  matter  getting  into  the  cup  that 
will  stop  the  feed  and  cause  trouble  from  hot  pins. 
The  cups  should  be  filled  before  leaving  the  ter- 
minal or  at  least  looked  at  so  as  to  know  that  they 
will  not  feed  out  before  reaching  the  end  of  the 


106 


FIREMEN. 


trip,  and  should  be  adjusted  to  feed  as  near  uni- 
formly as  possible  without  throwing  the  oil  all 
over  the  rods.  The  greatest  difficutly  is  to  get 
the  feed  regulated  fine  enough  and  still  have  it 
positive.    A  pin  will  run  with  very  little  oil  if  the 


feed  is  only  constant.  Get  the  feed  set  as  fine  as 
you  can  and  run  the  pin  cool.  The  same  rule  ap- 
plies to  the  guide  cups. 

Starting  in  with  a  system  of  oiling  and  as- 
suming that  the  lubricator  and  rod  cups  are  filled, 
if  convenient  place  the  engine  on  the  forward  cen- 
ter with  the  lever  in  the  back  notch.  This  will 
make  it  easy  to  get  the  oil  to  the  wedges  and  driv- 
ing boxes  on  that  side  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
valve  gear  on  both  sides.  Commence  at  the  back 
driving  box  and  bring  the  spout  of  the  can  around 
the  face  of  the  wedge  with  a  streak  of  oil.  If 
the  box  is  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  31  drop  a  little 
in  the  oil  pocket  that  leads  to  the  face  of  the 
wedge;    put  a  sufficient    amount    in    the    center 


FIREMEN,  107 

pocket  that  leads  to  the  journal,  and  treat  the  shoe 
and  oil  pocket  on  the  front  side  of  the  box  in  the 
same  manner,  being  careful  to  put  the  oil  intend- 
ed for  lubricating  the  journal  well  over  in  the 
box  as  the  cinders  from  the  ash  pit  will  accumu- 
late around  the  axle  on  that  side.  As  there  is 
nothing  to  hold  the  oil  in  or  keep  the  dirt  out  this 
is  usually  the  side  of  the  box  that  i  first  to  get 
dry  and  then  hot.  The  wheel  center  hub  on  the 
outside  of  the  box  will  prevent  the  dirt  from  get- 
ting in  on  that  side  and  also  sei'A^es  to  help  retain 
the  oil.  It  is  a  little  more  trouble  to  get  farther 
in  with  the  oil  can  but  it  pays. 

Be  reasonably  liberal  with  the  amount  on  your 
first  oiling  as  your  time  may  be  short  at  your 
next  oiling  place  and,  by  giving  a  good  oiling  on 
the  start,  ymi  will  not  need  to  do  so  much  oiling 
aftei'wards.  Xow  go  to  the  next  box,  treat  it  as 
you  did  the  back  one,  oil  the  eccentrics,  tumbling 
shaft,  rocker  boxes,  links,  hangers,  and  all  other 
connections  to  the  valve  motion,  set  the  feeds 
on  the  guide  cups  but  do  not  fill  them  full  so 
the  oil  will  slop  out;  two-thirds  or  three-fourths 
will  run  them  all  right  and  it  will  look  better  than 
to  have  the  top  of  the  guide  bars  covered  with  oil. 
If  the  bottom  guide  looks  dry,  make  a  streak  of 
oil  crosswise  and  that  will  lubricate  it  as  well  as 
if  you  made  the  map  of  a  small  river  running 
the  leng-th  of  the  guide.  The  cross  head  will 
push  the  surplus  oil  up  to  the  end  of  its  travel 
and  benefit  will  be  derived  only  from  the  amount 
that  adhered  to  the  surface.  If  you  are  running 
ahead  the  bottom  guide  will  require  but  very  lit- 
tle oil  at  any  time. 

Now  give  the  engine  trucks  attention  and  go  to 


108  FIREMEN. 

the  other  side  of  the  engine  oiling  back  to  the 
front  driving  box,  including  the  valve  gear  on 
that  side.  Then  move  her  ahead  one-fourth  of  a 
revolution  and  leave  the  lever  in  forward  notch. 
Oil  the  boxes  and  eccentrics  on  that  side  the  same 
as  the  other.  If  it  was  impossible  to  oil  all  the 
valve  gear  when  the  lever  was  in  back  motion  it 
can  now  be  reached  with  the  lever  in  the  forward 
motion,  for  instance,  the  lower  end  of  the  link  on 
some  classes  of  engines.    The  engine  has  now  re- 


ceived  a  thorough  and  systematic  oiling.  The  fire- 
man no  doubt  will  appreciate  the  can  being  wiped 
off  before  it  is  placed  on  the  shelf. 

If  the  tender  trucks  need  attention,  do  not  use 
up  a  can  of  oil  if  the  waste  is  oily.  A  packing 
iron  pushed  into  the  box  clear  to  the  back  end 
and  then  given  a  rolling  motion  away  from  the 
journal  will  bring  the  oily  waste  at  the  bottom  of 
the  box  up  to  the  journal  and  there  will  be  oil 
enough  in  it  to  run  some  time  longer  and  still 
lubricate  the  journal. 

At  any  time  it  is  necessary  to  pack  a  journal 
box,  first  twist  up  a  bunch  of  waste  and  push  it 
hard  against  the  back  of  the  box ;  this  to  serve  as 
a  retainer  to  the  oil  and  assist  as  a  dust  guard. 


^  FIREMEN.  109 

Then  place  the  packing  under  the  journal,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  32,  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  pack- 
ing in  front  of  the  journal  to  fill  the  space  and 
keep  the  waste  from  working  out.  The  sponging 
or  packing  under  the  journal  should  not  extend 
above  the  center  of  the  axle  on  the  sides  of  the 
box  or  outside  of  collar  on  the  end  of  the  journal. 
The  bunch  of  waste  placed  at  the  end  of  the  jour- 
nal simply  serves  as  a  block  to  keep  the  packing 
in  place  and  should  have  no  thread  contact  with 
the  packing.  Thus  it  serves  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  waste  from  being  crowded  out  of  the 
box  by  the  collar  when  it  is  working  endwise. 

This  method  has  been  found  very  satisfactory 
and  the  boxes  will  run  cool. 

The  sponging  or  packing  in  the  boxes  is  for  the 
purpose  of  bringing  the  oil  up  to  the  journals. 
See  that  it  is  kept  in  contact  with  them. 

CAKLYING  WATER  IN   BOILERS.  —  EFFECT   OF  TOO   MUCH 
OF   A  GOOD   THfNG.  —  SPEED. 

Men  who  have  been  accustomed  to  small  power 
and  low  pressure  have  found  some  difficulty  in 
getting  into  the  habit  of  keeping  the  water  level 
down  to  insure  dry  steam  being  admitted  to  the 
cylinders  with  the  modern  high  pressure  engine, 
for  the  reason  that  with  the  old  style  boiler  the 
dome  was  placed  well  back  on  the  boiler  over  the 
fire  box  and  the  throttle  being  opened  had  a  ten- 
dency to  raise  the  water  in  the  glass  above  its 
true  level  in  the  boiler  when  the  engine  was  work- 
ing steam.  Figs.  33  and  34  show  this  style  of 
boiler  at  work  and  at  rest,  while  Figs.  35  and  36 
show  a  boiler  of  modem  type  with  the  throttle 


110 


FIREMEN. 


open  and  closed.  The  dome  being  placed  forward 
of  the  fire  box  and  the  steam  and  water  at  the 
higher  pressure  being  more  elastic.  When  the 
throttle  is  opened  it  forms  a  current  of  pressure 


/^.  33 


J^.  3^ 


and  tends  more  to  lower  the  water  in  the  glass 
than  to  raise  it.  If  the  water  is  carried  as  high  in 
both  of  the  boilers  when  the  engines  are  work- 


Enin 


IL- 


n^^)^wi 


n^.  55 


/^.  36 


ing,  water  will  pass  out  with  the  steam  and  tlie 
efficiency  of  the  engine  is  reduced.  More  water 
and  coal  will  be  consumed  in  performing  the  same 
amount  of  T.ork  than  if  dry  steam  was  used. 

The  reason  why  valves  get  dry  in  some  cases  is 
also  apparent.  The  old  saying  that  you  could 
burn  the  boiler  but  could  not  drown  it  is  out  of 
date.  The  time  is  fast  now  and  the  steam  must  be 
dry  in  order  to  make  it.  The  question  of  working 
the  engine  with  or  without  a  wide  open  throttle 
and  a  long  or  short  cut-off  should  be  detennined 
by  the  engineman,  who  should  regulate  them  to 
the  positions  to  obtain  the  best  results.  When 
the  summit  or  the  top  of  a  hill  is  reached,  if  the 


FIREMEN.  Ill 

descending  grade  is  several  miles  in  length,  keep 
your  speed  within  the  limits  of  the  engine,  and 
when  the  level  is  reached  you  will  be  in  better 
shape  to  go  right  along.  It  is  advisable  to  crack 
the  joint  on  the  throttle  open  when  drifting  down 
a  long  hill  on  either  a  simple  or  a  compound  en- 
gine, as  it  prevents  the  gases  and  cinders  from 
getting  into  the  cylinders,  keeps  the  circulation 
up  in  th-e  boiler  and  the  fire  in  better  shape.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  use  much  steam  to  do  this; 
enough  to  hold  the  relief  valves  shut  is  all  that  is 
required.  Time  can  be  made  without  falling  down 
the  hill  on  freight  trains  even  if  the  engine  will 
stand  the  sj^eed. 

In  summer  there  may  be  some  of  the  boxes  in 
the  car  trucks  that  are  not  in  as  good  a  condition 
as  the  others,  or  in  winter  the  oil  may  not  get  to 
the  journal  before  the  box  gets  hot,  and  if  the  ex- 
cessive rate  of  speed  down  the  hill  changes  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  brakeman  to  that  of  a  car  repairer 
time  would  have  been  made  by  descending  the  hill 
at  a  slower  speed.  Use  your  best  judgment  in  the 
question  of  speed. 


PROPER  LUBRICATION  OF  JOURNALS. 

The  increase  in  size  of  locomotives  and  tenders, 
as  well  as  cars,  necessitates  the  carrying  of  greater 
weight  upon  each  journal.  To  accominodate  these 
great  weights  the  engineering  department  has  pro- 
gressed from  light  iron  rails  of  35  pounds  per  yard 
to  heavy  steel  rails  of  100  j^ounds  per  yard. 

From  a  weight  on  each  driving  wheel  of  eight  to 
ten  thousand  poimds  formerly,  we  now  find  an  in- 
crease barely  escaping  twenty-five  thousand  pounds. 

The  locomotive  tender  has  also  kept  pace  with 
the  engine  itself,  but  with  no  addition  in  the  num- 
ber of  wheels  carrying  this  greater  weight.  Even 
though  track  tanks  are  used  on  many  trunk  lines, 
still  the  miles  of  railroads  thus  equipped  would 
bear  a  very  small  ratio  to  the  total  American  rail- 
road mileage.  Hence  it  is  necessary  to  carry  a  large 
supply  of  water  in  the  tender  to  supply  the  im- 
mense locomotive  boilers  of  present  construction. 
Where  2,000  to  2,500  gallons  was  formerly  consid- 
ered ample,  we  now  find  tenders  of  5,000  to  7,000 
gallons  capacity  on  fast  express  and  heavy  freight 
locomotives.  The  coal  capacity  has  been  increased 
proportionately  and  we  no  longer  find  a  coal  space 
provided  for  five  or  six  tons,  but  for  twelve  to 
fifteen  tons.  Thus  it  is  that  we  have  come  to  the 
requirements  of  carrying  a  tender  which,  loaded, 

(112) 


FIREMEN  113 

weighs  considerably  in  excess  of  one  liiindred  thou- 
sand pounds,  all  to  be  supported  by  two  bogie 
trucks,  or  eight  wheels  and  the  same  number  of 
journals. 

The  proper  method  of  packing  the  driving  boxes 
and  their  cellars  is  very  important,  and  a  matter 
with  which  every  railroad  man  in  the  mechanical  de- 
partment should  be  familiar ;  yet  when  the  exercise 
of  great  care  is  enjoined  upon  those  whose  duties  it  is 
to  clean  off  the  top  of  the  driving  boxes,  keep  the  oil 
holes  open  and  see  that  the  cellars  are  well  packed 
with  clean,  spongy  waste,  and  similar  instructions 
are  given  in  the  care  of  the  engine  truck  cellar,  it  still 
remains  that  the  proper  care  and  packing  of  journal 
boxes  on  the  tender  and  cars  of  the  train  is  less  un- 
derstood than  it  should  be  from  a  scientific  stand- 
point. 

Hence  it  is  believed  that  the  careful  discussion  of 
this  subject  will  be  not  only  interesting,  but  exceed- 
ingly instructive,  to  every  practical  railroad  man. 


THE  PROPER  CARE  OF  PACKING  IN  JOURNAL  BOXES. 
—ITS  IMPORTANT  RELATION  TO  SUCCESSFUL  LUB- 
RICATION. 


**An  attempt  to  curtail  the  proper  care  of  journal 
boxes  at  once  affects  the  service  and  its  successful 
and  thoroughly  safe  operation,  the  effects  of  which 
extend  from  the  president  down  through  the  entire 
management  until  it  reaches  the  men  assigned  the 
duty  of  the  care  of  packing  and  oiling  the  journal 
boxes.  It  would,  therefore,  be  a  reasonable  claim 
that  this  branch  of  the  work  on  railroads  is  one  of 
the  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important,  as  a 

*FroTn  a  paper  presented  before  the  Central  Railway  Club. 


114 


FIREMEN 


car  or  locomotive  can  be  run  that  has  not  been  thor- 
oughly cleaned  or  repainted  or  varnished,  but  it  can- 
not be  run  with  a  hot  journal,  which  may  be  due  in  a 
groat  measure  to  the  neglect  in  this  branch  of  the 
work. 

"Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  this 
branch  of  railway  work,  in  having  systematic  meth- 


FlG.    1. 

Galvanized  Iron  Box  for  Demonstrating  Effect  of  Various 
Metliods  of  Loosening  Up  Paeliing. 

ods  and  intelligent  and  reliable  men  to  perform  this 
service.  To  accomplish  these  ends  it  would  appear 
as  a  wise  and  up-to-date  policy  to  make  a  specialty  of 
following  up  all  the  details  of  this  work,  as  well  as 
the  care  in  the  selection  of  intelligent  men,  as  in  all 
branches  of  the  mechanical  sphere  the  most  success- 


F I  REM  EX  115 

ful  are  those  that  make  a  specialty  of  some  one  of 
the  several  branches. 

"In  this  connection,  it  would  seem  proper  to  re- 
fer to  the  volume  of  the  work  in  the  care  of  packing 
in  journal  boxes.  When  we  refer  to  recent  statistics 
which  show  that  the  number  of  cars  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time  has  reached  1,300,000, 
making  10,400,000  journal  boxes  to  maintain,  a  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  magnitude  of  this  work  can  possibly 
be  realized,  and  in  view  of  this  the  officers  of  the 
railways  who  can  give  more  than  passing  attention  to 
this  branch  of  the  service  by  fully  providing  the  best 
known  facilities  for  the  work,  and  rendering  such 
assistance  to  the  men  responsible  in  this  depart- 
ment, will,  it  is  certain,  find  it  greatly  to  the  interests 
of  the  railway  with  which  they  are  connected. 

"As  abetter  means  of  interesting  the  men  direct- 
ly engaged  in  the  care  of  packing  and  oiling  cars  and 
locomotives,  especially  at  terminals,  yards  and  en- 
gine houses,  where  opportunity  is  given  to  give  spe- 
cial attention  to  the  packing  prior  to  oiling,  I  desire 
to  call  attention  to  a  model  journal  box  which  is 
shown  here  (see  Fig.  1),  the  special  object  of  which 
is  to  educate  the  men  up  to  the  most  efficient  means 
of  thoroughly  maintaining  the  packing  in  boxes, 
which  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  mere  adding 
of  oil  to  the  box  without  regard  to  the  condition  of 
the  packing.  The  principle  of  the  box  is  such  as  to 
enable  the  men  to  make  a  practical  demonstration 
of  the  exact  effect  of  their  method  of  stirring  up  the 
packing  in  a  box,  and  if  their  methods  are  in  any 
respect  deficient,  they  may  also  observe  the  effects 
of  a  proper  treatment   of  the  packing,  especially  on 


116 


FIREMEN 


the  sides  and  rear  of  box,  which  portions  are  quite 
commonly  neglected,  and  by  thus  practically  demon- 
strating the  bad  and  good  effects  with  suitable  pack- 
ing tools,  the  interest  of  the  average  man  may  be 
awakened  and  the  effects  of  his  work  greatly  im- 


Fig.  2. 
Showing  Proper  Height  of  Packing. 


'■•c3^<S%^^ 


Fig.   3. 
Showing  Bad  Condition  of  Packing  at  Back  End. 

proved.  Efforts  in  this  or  some  direction  of  this 
kind  are  a  necessity  if  we  may  hope  to  improve  and 
secure  more  satisfactory  service,  as  it  is  feared  that 
on  many  roads  the  details  of  this  work  have  not 
been  given  sufficient  serious  and  personal  attention. 


FIREMEN  117 

*'Fig.  2  illustrates  the  height  of  packing  in  a  box 
that  has  been  found  to  produce  the  most  satisfactory 
results.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  illustrates  the  top 
line  of  packing  to  correspond  about  with  the  center 
line  of  the  journal,  thus  leaving  the  packing  entirely 
clear  of  the  lower  edges  of  the  brass,  which  is  also  a 
desirable  condition,  and  it  also  shows  the  packing  in 
the  front  end  of  the  box  to  be  slightly  below  the 
opening  in  the  box,  the  object  being  to  prevent 
waste  of  oil  out  the  front  of  the  box ;  and,  further, 
any  additional  packing  in  excess  of  this  in  the  front 
of  the  box  will  be  practically  of  no  value. 

**Fig.  3  illustrates  the  shape  packing  will  assume 
in  the  rear  of  the  box  when  not  properly  maintained 
at  terminals  where  opportunity  is  given  for  this 
work.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  packing  is 
not  in  contact  with  journal  at  rear  end  of  same ;  this 
is  caused,  in  some  cases,  by  not  packing  the  back  end 
of  box  firmly  enough,  and  also,  more  especially, 
owing  to  improper  treatment  of  thg  packing  on  the 
sides  and  rear  portions  of  box  at  terminals  prior  to 
oiling,  in  combination,  also,  in  some  cases,  with  a 
lack  of  packing  tools  well  adapted  for  accomplish- 
ing effective  results  in  the  least  possible  time.  This 
condition  of  packing  is  further  shown  in  the  model 
box,  the  object  of  which,  as  previously  stated,  is  to 
demonstrate  beyond  question  the  effects  of  proper 
and  improper  treatment  of  the  packing,  and  serve  as 
a  better  means  of  interesting  and  educating  the  men 
engaged  in  this  work.  It  will  be  observed  that  by 
the  use  of  glass  sides  in  the  model  box  the  entire 
journal  is  exposed  to  view,  and  also  clearly  shows 
the  condition  of  the  packing  the  entire  length  of  the 


lis  FIREMEN 

journal  and  at  the  back  of  tlie  box.  A  more  impor- 
tant feature,  however,  is  that  it  clearly  shows  to 
the  man  to  be  instructed  in  this  work  the  exact  effect 
of  his  method  of  stirring  up  the  packing  prior  to 
oiling.  If  the  practice  he  has  followed  does  not 
restore  the  packing  on  the  sides  and  rear  of  box  to 
proper  relation  with  the  journal,  this  will  be  clearly 
and  positively  demonstrated  to  him,  as  well,  also, 
as  the  effect  of  such  slight  change  that  may  be 
necessary  in  his  methods  to  produce  desirable 
results,  and  effect  the  most  elastic  condition  of  the 
packing,  so  that  the  oil  in  the  box  may  be  freely  con- 
veyed to  the  journal.  As  this  is  a  practical  demon- 
stration, I  think  it  will  be  conceded  that  it  will  serve 
as  a  superior  means  of  interesting  the  men  in  their 
work,  as  compared  to  verbal  or  written  instructions 
concerning  the  same.  If  this  is  the  case,  it  is  quite 
logical  that  the  men  will  become  more  expert  in  the 
performance  of  this  work,  and  better  results  can  be 
reasonably  looked  for. 

"The  necessity  for  treating  the  packing  in  this  or 
a  similar  manner,  we  think  will  be  quite  apparent 
to  any  one  who  will  make  the  most  casual  observa- 
tions of  the  solid,  non-elastic  condition  the  jDacking 
assumes  through  a  failure  to  give  it  proper  atten- 
tion at  the  back  end  of  the  box,  as  previously 
described ;  and  when  in  this  condition  it  not  only  fails 
to  convey  oil  to  the  journal,  but  actually  becomes  in 
time  hardened  and  glazed,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
wipe  or  scrape  off  any  oil  that  may  reach  the  jour- 
nal from  the  forward  part  of  the  box.  The  lubri- 
cation, therefore,  is  so  retarded  as  to,  in  a  short 
time,  result  in  the  heating  of  the  journal.  At  the 
same  time  that  this  condition  exists  in  the  back  of 


FIREMEN 


119 


the  box,  the  appearance  of  the  packing  near  the 
front  of  the  box  may  be  very  good,  and  a  man  that 
gave  attention  to  the  packing  just  prior  to  journal 
heating  would  be  under  the  impression  that  the 
treatment  he  gave  it  was  all  that  possibly  could  be 
done.  It  is,  therefore,  considered  that  the  treatment 
of  the  packing  as  demonstrated  by  the  model  box, 
and  also  described,  is  of  much  greater  importance 
than  the  mere  adding  of  oil  to  the  box. 

''Fig.  4  illustrates  a  journal  box  having  an  exces- 
sive quantity  of  packing,  which  is  not  only  a  waste- 
ful practice,  resulting  in  a  loss  of  oil  out  of  the  ends 


Fig.  4. 
Showing  Excessive  Quantity  of  Packing. 

of  the  box,  but  is  also  detrimental  to  good  results, 
as  by  this  method  of  so  completely  filling  up  the  box 
with  packing  a  condition  is  caused  that  frequently 
results  in  threads  or  small  particles  of  packing 
becoming  caught  between  brass  and  journal.  This 
occurs  by  violent  shocks  produced  in  switching  and 
application  of  brakes  when  the  relation  between 
brass  and  journal  is  sufficiently  disturbed  to  permit 
small  particles  of  waste  being  caught  under  the 
edge  of  brass  and  journal.  This  is  particularly  true 
when  the  packing  is  pressed  up  close  around  the 


120  FIREMEN 

brass,  as  in  Fig.  4.  This  is  not  an  infrequent  cause 
of  very  serious  cases  of  hot  driving  boxes  on 
engines.  The  effect  is  that  the  oil  is  wiped  off  the 
journal  and  the  surface  thus  becomes  dry,  resulting 
in  heating  in  a  comparatively  few  minutes.  It  is 
therefore  apparent  that  in  stirring  up  packing,  the 
top  portion  should  be  entirely  below  the  edge  of  the 
brass.  In  stirring  uj)  packing  as  described  it  should 
be  understood  clearly  that  all  that  is  required  is 
a  slight  loosening  up  of  the  top  surface  of  the  pack- 
ing on  each  side  of  the  journal,  keeping  the  back  of 
the  box  well  closed  up  by  maintaining  packing  at 
the  proper  height.  The  top  layer  of  packing  will 
thus  be  kept  in  a  light,  elastic  condition  next  to  the 
journal,  which  is  most  desirable  in  order  that  the 
oil  may  be  freely  conveyed  to  the  journal  from  the 
more  solid  portions  of  packing  underneath.  A  gen- 
eral disturbance  of  the  packing  should  be  avoided, 
as  no  good  results  can  be  secured  by  this  method. 

**As  suitable  tools  for  this  work  are  as  essentia) 
as  competent  and  skillful  men,  a  packing  tool  (see 
Fig.  5)  is  here  shown,  made  of  steel,  that  has  been 
found  well  adapted  for  the  work  of  slightly  stir- 
ring up  packing  in  journal  boxes  at  terminals  where* 
time  is  given  for  this  work.  This  will  apply  to  both 
passenger  and  freight  cars  and  locomotive  tenders. 
By  reason  of  the  custom  of  some  men  with  other 
forms  of  packing  tools  they  may  not  at  first  appre- 
ciate the  value  this  form  of  tool  will  be  to  them,  but 
it  is  thought  that  by  some  consideration  and  trial 
it  will  be  found  very  efficient.  Its  efficiency  depends 
in  a  great  measure  in  following  out  the  practice  cf 
stirring  up  packing  as  described.  For  illustration:  It 
will  not  be  desirable  for  the  practice  of  placing  it 


FIREMEX  121 

down  under  the  entire  bulk  of  the  packing  at  the 
sides  of  the  box,  as  some  men  follow.  This  practice 
is  questionable  for  the  reason  that  when  this  is  done 
the  entire  bulk  of  packing  on  the  side  of  the  box 
is  raised  bodily  from  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  it 
should  be  considered  carefully,  if  this  is  the  case, 
how  long  it  will  likely  remain  up  in  that  condition 


jo  ">= HiS  oc: 

-•— r" 


V^ 


Fig.  5. 
Tool   for   Loosening  Up    Packing   in   Journal   Boxes. 


Fig.  6. 


I 


Tool  for  Packing  Journal   Boxes  in  Sliops  and  Shop  Yards. 

after  the  train  is  in  motion,  when  the  journal  box 
is  subjected  to  innumerable  blows  from  frogs  and. 
switches.  It  is  quite  logical  reasoning  that  it  wil? 
all  settle  back  in  a  short  time  in  a  non-elastic  cor- 
dition.  This  tool  can  be  known  as  the  combination 
packing  tool,  as  it  combines  the  features  of  the  com- 


122 


FIREMEN 


monly  known  packing  iron  and  hook.  It  is,  there- 
fore, only  necessary  for  the  men  to  carry  the  one 
tool  in  performing  this  work  at  terminals,  the  hook 
side  of  the  tool  being  necessary  to  remove  particles 
of  dry  packing  when  found,  or,  in  many  cases,  sur- 
plus packing. 


Fig.  7. 

Showing  Position  of  Packing  Tool  When  Used  to  Loosen  Up 

Packing  in  Each  Side  of  Journal. 


Fig.  S. 

Showing  Position  of  Packing  Tool  When  Used  to  Remove 

Surplus  Packing. 

*'In  Fig.  6  there  is  shown  a  set  of  packing  tools 
intended  for  use  in  shops  or  shop  yards,  where  the 
entire  repacldng  of  boxes  is  done,  and  we  therefore 
consider  this  operation  entirely  distinct  from  that 
of  stirring  up  packing  by  ins]")ectors  at  terminals, 
and  consequently  a  slightly  different  form  of  tool 


FIREMEN  123 

for  the  work  will  be  found  desirable,  as  is  the  case 
■with  the  gi-eat  variety  of  tools  required  by  skilled 
mechanics  in  their  various  occupations.  As  the  prac- 
tice of  some  is  to  have  a  hook  about  eight  inches 
from  the  handle  end  of  the  packing  tool  to  facilitate 
the  opening  and  closing  of  box  lids,  it  should,  of 
course,  be  understood  that  when  this  feature  is  a 
desirable  one,  it  should  be  added  to  the  tool.  The 
*^V"  shaped  end  of  these  tools  affords  a  ready  and 
effective  means  to  lightly  loosen  up  the  top  layer  of 
packing,  which  is  the  end  most  desired,  so  that  this 
portion  of  the  packing  may  be  in  the  most  elastic 
condition  possible.  Figs.  7  and  8  show  the  position 
of  packing  tool  when  used  as  described. 

' '  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  consider  the  quan- 
tity of  waste  and  oil  in  a  journal  box  when  joacked 
in  the  usual  manner.  Each  box  contains  from  I14 
to  214  pounds  of  waste  and  from  4i4  to  10  pints  of 
oil,  depending  upon  the  size  of  box,  varying  from 
3%  X  7  inches  up  to  the  51/2  x  10  inch  box.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  and  aj^preciated,  I  believe,  that  to 
properly  utilize  the  oil  that  is  in  the  box,  the  pack- 
ing next  to  the  journal  should  be  maintained  in  as 
elastic  condition  as  possible.  It  should  be  further 
understood  that  the  oil  as  it  passes  between  the 
surfaces  of  the  brass  and  journal  is  not  actually 
consumed,  but  is  deposited  to  a  degree  again  on  the 
-  opposite  side  of  journal  from  which  it  ascended  for 
use  again  an  indefinite  number  of  times. 

*'In  numerous  tests  made  by  various  responsible 
railways  a  very  unusual  high  mileage  has  been  made 
from  the  one  re-packing  of  the  box  or  boxes  without 
the  addition  of  any  oil  during  the  test.    In  some  of 


124  FIREMEN 

these  tests  the  mileage  has  been  from  six  to  twenty 
thousand  miles.  During  the  test  the  packing  was 
examined  daily  and  maintained  in  an  elastic  condi- 
tion, as  i:)reviously  described,  no  oil,  however,  hav- 
ing l3een  added  during  the  test.  Eeference  to  these 
tests  and  results  is  only  for  the  purpose  of  illustrat- 
ing the  possible  mileage  in  the  oil  contained  in  a 
journal  box  when  subjected  to  a  special  test  as 
referred  to,  and  is  not  for  the  purpose  of  conveying 
the  idea  that  such  results  are  obtainable  under  the 
average  conditions  and  treatment  on  the  best  regu- 
lated roads,  but,  instead,  to  indicate  under  rea- 
sonable conditions,  which  are  readily  obtainable 
through  careful  and  systematic  methods,  results, 
far  superior  to  what  are  now  being  obtained  under 
the  average  practices." 

It  should  be  enjoined  upon  'those  whose  duty  it  is 
to  inspect  and  care  for  journal  boxes  that  in  stirring 
up  the  packing  or  in  pushing  the  packing  down 
in  the  front  of  the  box,  where  there  is  always  a 
tendency  for  it  to  work  out,  the  top  waste  (which 
contains  more  or  less  sand  and  dirt)  should  be 
crowded  first  toward  the  front  of  the  box,  and  then 
down  under  the  cleaner  oily  waste,  which  latter  will 
thus  be  brought  up  to  the  journal. 

One  who  has  given  much  time  and  study  to  the 
subject  strongly  advises  the  following  practice  in 
the  packing  of  a  journal  box  on  either  a  car  or  loco- 
motive tender :  The  first  packing  put  into  the  box 
should  be  twisted  up  into  a  roll  and  shoved  clear 
to  the  back  of  the  box  and  up  against  the  axle,  thus 
forming  an  effective  dust  guard,  as  well  as  a  pre- 
ventive to  oil  running  out  of  the  back  of  the  l30X. 
Then  small  bunches  of  waste,  that  have  been  satu- 


FIREMEN  125 

rated  in  oil  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  and  sub- 
sequently drained  of  superfluous  oil,  should  be 
packed  under  the  journal  until  the  box  is  filled  the 
whole  length  of  the  journal.  Complete  the  opera- 
tion as  begun  by  a  twisted  roll  having  no  fibre  con- 
nection with  the  other  packing,  placed  in  the  front 
of  the  box  for  the  purj^ose  of  preventing  the  good 
packing  from  working  out  from  under  the  journal. 
It  is  desired,  in  conclusion,  to  emphasize  the  fact 
that  the  most  important  part  of  the  work  of  lubri- 
cation is  the  skillful  and  proper  maintenance  of  the 
packing  in  the  box,  so  that  the  most  elastic  condi- 
tion may  be  secured  and  maintained. 


126 


FIREMEN 


JOURNAL  BOX  DUST  GUARDS. 

In  order  to  retain  the  oil  in  the  journal  box  and 
at  the  Scune  time  exclude  the  dust,  sand  and  dirt  it 
has  long  been  customary  to  employ  some  form  of 
wooden  or  metal  dust  guard,  the  former  being  fre- 
quently faced  with  plush  or  felt.  Manj'  improve- 
ments upon  this  older  form  of  solid  board  guard 
have  been  devised,  one  of  the  best  known  being 
here  illustrated. 


HARRISON  DUST  GUARDS. 


The  Harrison  dust  guard  is  constructed  from 
hard  wood,  well  oiled,  and  made  in  two  sections. 


Fig.  1. 
Harrison  Dust  Guard. 


Through  each  of  these  sections  there  is  formed  an 
orifice  adapted  to  receive  bolts.    In  the  upper  sec- 


FIREMEN  127 

tion  of  the  "top  part  the  orifices  are  enlarged  in  order 
to  receive  springs.  Said  springs  are  compressed 
with  jammed  hexagon  nuts  whereby  the  sections  are 
held  yieldingly  together,  constantly  encircling  the 
car  axle  journal  at  all  times,  and  in  both  of  the  sec- 
tions there  is  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  taken  out 
of  the  center,  thereby  allowing  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  wear  before  sections  are  closed  together. 

In  each  of  the  sections  there  is  formed  a  groove 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide  and  three-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  deep.  Into  this  groove  there  is  inserted 
packing  striiDS.  The  packing  strip  in  the  uj^per  sec- 
tions is  sufficiently  shortened  to  allow  the  packing 
strip  in  the  lower  section  to  telescope  into  groove  in 
the  upper  section,  thereby  closing  the  joints  between 
the  two  sections,  not  only  making  this  guard  dust 
proof,  but,  as  the  packing  is  cut  out  of  heaw^^  belting 
leather,  insuring  great  ser\'ice  owing  to  the  fact  that 
under  tests  of  upwards  of  fifty-five  thousand  miles 
no  indication  of  wear  was  observable. 

BALDWIN     LOCOMOTIVE     WORKS.        EULES     AND     DATA. 

TRACTIVE  POWER, HOW  TO  FIGURE   WHAT 

WILL  S(HE  PULL. 

With  the  engine  adjusted  to  steam  freely,  a 
valve  motion  that  will  insure  a  good  steam  distri- 
bution and  the  machine  properly  lubricated,  the 
next  problem  is  the  capacity  of  the  engine  to 
move  tons  of  freight  or  passenger  trains  over  the 
road.  It  costs  money  to  operate  a  railroad  and 
the  revenue  is  obtained  from  the  sale  of  transpor- 


128  FIREMEN. 

tation.  Assuming  that  the  locomotive  is  of  mod- 
ern design  and  assigned  to  the  class  of  service 
best  adapted  to  it,  the  next  i:)oint  to  determine  is 
the  draw  bar  pull  or  how  much  tractive  power 
will  be  de\'eloped  to  overcome  the  train  resis- 
tance. First  the  adhesion  or  weight  placed  on 
the  drivers  must  be  greater  than  the  resistance 
of  the  train,  and  this  weight  is  usually  limited 
by  the  condition  of  the  road  bed,  weight  of  rails 
and  strength  of  bridges.  Here  is  where  the  en- 
gineering dei>artment  specify  to  the  mechanical 
officers  the  number  of  pounds  that  may  be  placed 
on  the  driving  wheels  of  the  locomotive.  The 
diameter  of  the  driving  wheels,  diameter  of  cylin- 
ders, length  of  stroke  of  the  piston  in  inches  and 
the  nu  '>\hev  of  pounds  steam  pressure  per  square 
inch  carried  on  the  boiler  will  enable  us  to  ap- 
proximateliy  determine  the  tractive  power,  when 
tlie  use  of  a  dynamometer  car  is  not  available. 
The  tractive  power,  developed  by  a  single  ex- 
pansion locomotive  at  slow  speed  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  assuming  that  85  per  cent  of  the  boiler 
pressure  will  equal  tlie  mean  effective  pressure 
in  the  cylinders  and  using  the  fonnula: 

C2  X  S  X  P 

=  T 

D 

Now  this  is  not  at  all  hard  and  a  little  time 
will  make  this  and  other  fonnulas  easy  to  figiire. 

C-  indicates  that  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder 
should  be  multiplied  by  itself,  or  squared. 

S  equals  the  stroke  of  the  piston  in  inches, 

P  equals  the  mean  effective  jiressure  in  pounds 
or  85  per  cent  of  the  boiler  pressure. 


FIREMEN.  129 

D  equals  tlie  diameter  of  the  driving  wheels  in 
inches  and  placed  under  the  line  mean^  that  when 
the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  is  multiplied  by 
itself  or  squared,  that  number  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  inches  of  stroke  and  then  by  the 
number  of  pounds  mean  effective  pressure  all  this 
above  the  line  should  be  divided  by  D  or  the 
diameter  of  the  driving  wheel  in  inches  will  equal 
T  or  the  tractive  power. 

EXAMPLE :  An  engine  20x26''  cylinders,  56'" 
wheels,  200-lb.  boiler  pressure. 


C2=20  s  20 

20 

20 

S=26" 

400 

26 

200 

2400 

P=     .85 

800 

1000 

10400 

1600 

170 

170.00    738000 
10400 

Diam.  of  Driver  56)  1768000  (31,571  Pounds,  Tractive  Force 


820 
280 

400 

392 

80 
56 

4 

C2  X  S  X  P 

T= or  31,571  Pounds. 

I) 

31.571  pounds  tractive  power  developed  by  the 
engine  that  can  be  used  to  overcome  the  resist- 
ance of  the  locomotive  and  train.  This  rule  is 
applicable  to  any  size  single  expansion  engine. 


130 


FIREMEN. 


Por  a  two-cylinder  compound  use  this  formula: 


C=xSx  2,p 


1  u 

using  two-thirds  of  the  boiler  pressure  and  con- 
sidering the  high  pressure  cylinder  only. 

EXAMPLE :    Wliat  is  the  tractive  power  of  a 
two-cylinder  comjwund : 


Cyls.  H  X  26  "  Drivers  63 ' 


Boiler  Pressure  210  lbs. 


44 
44 


484 
26 


D- 


2904 

968 

12584 
140 

503;360 
12584 

)  1761760  (27,964  Pounds,  Tractive  Force 
126 

501 
441 

607 
567 

406 
378 

280 
252 


28 


K  of  210  =  140  lbs. 


The  tractive  power  of  a  four-cylinder  compound 
may  be  ascertained  by  the  following  formula: 


CxSx'a'P       C^kSxHP 


D 


D 


Work  this  out  separately  for  the  high  and  the 
low  pressure  cylinders  the  same  as  was  done  for 
the  simple  and  add  the  quotients. 


FIREMEN.  131 

EXAMPLE:     AMiat  is  the  tractive  power  of  a 
four-cylinder  compound : 

Cyls.  25  ^  26  "       Drivers  73  "  Boiler  Pressure  220  lbs. 

High  Pressure  Cylinder.  Low  Pressure  Cylinder. 

15  25 

15  25 

75  185 

15  50 

225  625 

28  26 

1350  3750 

450  1250 

5850  16250 
»i  of  220  =    146                   •                                         «  of  220  =       55 

35100  81250 

23400  81250 


6850 

85 
73 

12 
73 

51 
511 


73  )  893750  (  12,243 
73  )  854100  (  11,700  73 

163 

124  146 

177 
511  146 

315 
00  292 

230 
219 

11,700  +  12,^3  =  23,943  T.  11 

TKAIX   EESISTAXCE  OE  LOCOMOTm:  RATING, 

To  overcome  the  resistance  of  one  ton,  2,000 
lbs.,  on  a  straight  and  level  track  at  a  speed  ot 
ten  miles  per  hour  or  less,  careful  tests  have  dem- 
onstrated that  it  varies  from  5  to  8  lbs.  per 
ton,  or  an  average  of  6I/2  lbs.  per  ton.  It  is  safe 
to  allow  8  lbs.  per  ton  for  train  resistance  on  a 
level,  and  by  dividing  the  tractive  power  by  8  it 
would  give  the  number  of  tons  rating.  Tliis  rule 
covers  the  axle  or  journal  and  rolling  friction 
only.     If  on   a   grade,  multiplying  the  feet  per 


132  FIREMEN. 

mile  rise  in  grade  by  .3788  will  give  the  resistance? 
due  to  grade  per  ton  and  will  be  sufficiently  cor- 
rect to  establish  a  rating  in  the  absence  of  a 
regular  test  or  a  dynamometer  car;  or  if  pre- 
ferred, add  %  lbs.  =  to  .375  per  ton  for  each 
foot  per  mile  rise  in  the  grade.  Either  of.  the 
above  decimals  will  answer  for  grade  resistance. 
Cur^^e  resistance  may  be  figured  as  9-16  lbs.  per 
ton  for  every  degree  of  curve,  9-16=.5625.  Us- 
ing this  decimal  and  multiplying  by  the  number 
of  degrees  in  the  curve  we  get  the  curve  resis- 
tance. 

EXA^IPLE :  AVhat  is  the  resistance  per  ton 
of  train  on  a  grade  of  100  feet  per  mile  with  -i 
degree  curve. 

Allowinij    8     lbs.  for  friction. 
100  X  .375=  37.5  lbs.  for  },'rade. 
4  X  .5625=  2.25  lbs.  for  curve. 


47.75 


we  have  47.75  lbs.  resistance  per  ton. 

These  figures  are  not  given  as  absolutely  cor- 
rect in  establishing  a  rating,  but  will  sen^e  to 
work  from  in  making  up  trains  for  test.  The 
only  correct  method  to  rate  an  engine  is  to  take 
several  engines  of  the  same  class  and  make  actual 
tests  in  service  to  get  the  hauling  capacity,  then 
reduce  the  tonnage  of  train  to  meet  the  recj[uire- 
ments  of  the  service  and  leave  a  sufficient  margin 
of  power  to  insure  proper  time  being  made  under 
average  conditions.  The  old  method  of  the  last  car 
she  will  pull  has  lost  out  long  ago,  and  the  most 
economical  rating  at  the  jiresent  time  is  a  train 
that  can  be  handled  and  gotten  over  the  road  with- 
out tying  up  opposing  or  following  trains. 


FIREMEN.  133 


Handy  Kules  in  Arithmetic. 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  multiply  its 
diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  circle  multiply  its  cir- 
cumference by  .31831. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  circle  multiply  the  square 
of  its  diameter  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  cubic  inches  in  a  ball  multiply  its 
cube  of  diameter  by  .5236. 

To  find  the  revolutions  of  drivers  per  mile  divide 
1680  by  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  in  feet. 

To  find  revolutions  per  minute  multiply  the 
speed  in  miles  per  hour  by  28  and  divide  the  prod- 
uct by  the  diameter  of  the  driving  wheel  in  feet. 

To  find  piston  speed  in  feet  per  minute  multiply 
revolutions  per  minute  by  twice  the  stroke  of  pis- 
ton in  feet. 

To  find  the  sj^eed  of  train  per  second  multiply 
speed  in  miles  per  hour  by  22  and  divide  by  15. 

To  find  time  when  rate  of  speed  and  distance  is 
given  multiply  distance  by  60  and  divide  by  rate 
of  speed. 

To  find  rate  of  speed  when  distance  and  time  are 
given,  distance  multiplied  by  60  and  divided  by  the 
time  in  minutes. 

To  find  the  distance  when  the  time  and  rate  of 
s]3eed  are  given,  multiply  the  time  by  the  rate  of 
speed  and  divide  by  60. 

To  find  the  number  of  tons  of  coal  in  a  bin: 
Length,  height  and  width  of  pile  in  feet  multiplied 
together,  divide  by  30  for  hard  coal,  by  35  for  soft 
coal,  by  128  for  cords  of  long  wood,  ^d  by  135  for 
cords  of  sawed  wood. 


134  FIREMEy 

» 

To  find  the  pounds  of  coal  used  \)er  100-ton  mile 
multiply  pounds  of  coal  by  100  and  divide  by  tons 
multiplied  by  the  miles  hauled. 

To  find  the  pressure  in  ])ounds  per  square  inch 
of  a  column  of  water  multiply  the  height  of  the 
column  in  feet  by  .434. 

Fig.  No.  37 

shows  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  curve  repre- 
senting the  revolutions  ]>er  mile  of  driving  wheels 
of  various  diameters.  The  diameter  of  the  wheels 
is  designated  by  the  numbers  at  the  top  of  the 
chart,  and  the  revolutions  per  mile  by  the  numbers 
at  the  left  margin.  A  i>eri3endicular  line  from 
any  number  representing  the  diameter  of  the 
wheel  followed  to  its  intersection  with  the  cui-ve, 
then  out  on  the  horizontal  line  to  the  marginal 
number  on  the  left,  will  give  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions for  the  diameter  of  wheel. 

Fig.  No.  38 

gives  piston  speed  in  feet  per  minute  for  drivers 
of  different  diameters  and  various  strokes  at  a 
speed  of  10  miles  per  hour;  for  greater  speeds 
they  must  be  multiplied  by  the  factor  represent- 
ing the  speed.  In  using  the  plate  follow  the  per- 
pendicular line  from  the  number  representing  the 
driver  wheel  in  inches  until  it  intersects  the  cur\^e 
representing  the  stroke  of  piston;  following  the 
horizontal  line  to  the  marginal  number  at  the  left 
will  give  the  piston  speed  in  feet  per  minute  for 
the  given  wheel  and  stroke. 


BALDWIN    LOCOMOTIVE    WORMS 
Revolutions  of  Driving  Wheels  per  Mile. 


t>fv^*t  of  Driving  ^ 
.  SOffla* 


!«ts  io  Incbe*. 


BALDWIN    LOCOMOTIVE   WORKS. 

Piiton  Spe<dt  in  F«<t  p<r  Minutg  «t  Engine  Speed  of  Ten  Milei  pM  H<n»- 

Diameter  of  Driving  WbceU  in  lochea. 


FIREMEN. 


137 


SECONDS  PER  MILE  IN  MILES  PER  HOUR. 


DECIMAL  EQFR'ALENTS. 


1-64  in. 

.015625 

1   23-04  in. 

.359375 

11-16  in. 

.6875 

l-3i 

.03125 

1   3  8 

.375 

45-64 

.703125 

3  64 

0468T5 

,   25-64 

.390625 

23-32 

.71875 

1-16 

.0625 

13-32 

.40625 

47-64 

.734375 

5-fi4 

.078125 

27-64 

.421875 

3-4 

.75 

3-33 

09375 

7-16 

.4375 

49-64 

.765625 

T-64 

.109375 

29-64 

.453125 

25-.32 

.78125 

1-8 

.125 

15  32 

.4  87.5 

51-64 

.796875 

9-64 

.140625 

31-64 

.484375 

13-16 

.8125 

5^32 

.15625 

12 

.a 

5:^-64 

.828125 

11-&4 

.171S75 

33-64 

.515fi25 

27  32 

.84375 

3-16 

.1875 

17-32 

.53125 

55-64 

.859.375 

:3-6-l 

.203125 

35-64 

.546875 

7-8 

.875 

7  32 

.21875 

9-16 

.5025 

57-64 

.890625 

15-64 

.234S75 

37-64 

.578125 

29-32 

.90625 

1-4 

.25 

19-32 

.59375 

59-64 

.921875 

17-64 

.265625 

39-64 

.609375 

15-16 

.9375 

9-32 

.2'<125 

5-8 

.625 

61-64 

95.3125 

19-64 

.296875 

41-64 

.640625 

31-32 

.96875 

5-16 

.3125 

21-32 

.65625 

63  fr4 

.984375 

21  64 

.328125 

43-64 

.6;]875 

A 

1 

11  32 

.34375 

138 


FIREMEN. 


WIIEEL6. 
Diameter,  Cii'cumference  and  Revolutions  per  Mile. 


Diameter 

Circumfer- 

Revolutions 

Diameter 

Circumfer- 

Revolutions 

in  Inches. 

ence  in  Feet. 

per  Mile. 

in  Inciies. 

ence  in  Feet. 

per  Mile. 

18 

4.712 

1119.76 

48 

12.57 

420.0 

20 

5.236 

1008.4 

50 

13.00 

403.4 

22 

5.759 

916.8 

52 

13.61 

387.9 

24 

6  283 

838  4 

54 

14.14 

373.4 

26 

6.81 

775.3 

56 

14.66 

360.2 

28 

7.36 

720.3 

58 

15.18 

347.8 

30 

7.85 

672.6 

60 

15.71 

836.1 

32 

8.377 

630.3 

62 

16.23 

325.3 

33 

8.64 

611.1 

64 

16.75 

315.2 

34 

8  901 

593.2 

66 

17.28 

305.5 

36 

9.42 

560.5 

68 

17  80 

2%. 6 

37 

9.686 

545.1 

70 

18.36 

288.1 

38 

9.95 

530.6 

72 

18.85 

280.1 

40 

10.47 

504.2 

78 

20.42 

258.6 

42 

11.00 

480.0 

84 

21.99 

240.1 

44 

11.52 

458.3 

90 

23.56 

224.1 

46 

12.04 

438.5 

% 

25.16 

210.1 

TEMPERATURE  OF  STEAM  AT  VARIOUS  BOILER  PRESSURES. 


Boiler 

Decrees 

Boiler 

De^rrees 

Boiler 

Deffrees 

Pressure. 

Falir. 

Pressure. 

Fahr. 

Pressure. 

Fahr. 

0 

213 

110 

344 

165 

372.8 

5.3 

228 

115 

347 

170 

•    375.1     - 

15  3 

250.4 

120 

349.9 

175 

377.3 

25.3 

2rt7.3 

125 

352.8 

180 

379  5 

.35  3 

281 

130 

355.5 

185 

381.5 

45  3 

292.7 

135 

358.2 

190 

383.7 

55.8 

302.9 

140 

360.8 

195 

383.8 

66.3 

312 

145 

363.3 

200 

387.8 

320.2 

150 

365.8        1 

205 

389.7 

fi6  3 

327.9 

155 

368.1 

210 

391.7 

100 

a37.8 

ICO 

370.6 

215 

393.6 

lU.) 

340.9 

CHAPTER   VI. 


A      CHAPTER     OF     "  DON'tS  "     FOR     ENGINEERS      AND 
FIREMEN. 


"First.  DojiH  think  because  you  are  only  one 
engineer  or  fireman,  that  what  you  do  does  not 
amount  to  much.  It  is  the  little  drops  of  water 
that  make  the  mighty  ocean,  and  the  little  grains 
of  sand  that  make  up  this  earth  of  ours;  so  each 
individual,  in  the  aggregate,  can  do  a  great  deal. 
If  each  engine  crew  saves  one-quarter  of  a  ton  or 
five  hundred  pounds  of  coal,  this  on  a  thousand 
locomotives  would  result  in  a  daily  saving  of  two 
hundred  and  fifty  tons,  or  in  round  figures  $157,- 
000  a  year. 

•  ''Second.  DonH  neglect  being  at  roundhouoe  in 
ample  time  to  examine  the  firing  tools  on  the 
engine  before  leaving  the  roundhouse.  See  that 
your  ashpan,  grates  and  flue-sheets  are  in  good 
condition  to  make  the  run. 

"Third.  Don't  fill  the  boiler  full  of  water  as 
soon  as  you  get  out  of  the  house.  Leave  a  space 
so  the  injector  can  be  worked  to  prevent  pop- 
ping while  air  pump  exhaust  is  fanning  the  fire, 
pumping  air  to  make  the  terminal  air  brake  test. 
If  you  do  this  your  fire  will  be  in  better  condi- 
tion to  pull  out  with.  The  noise  of  open  pop 
prevents  trainmen  from  locating  leaks. 

"Don't  forget  to  start  the  lubricator  a  few  min- 
utes before  leaving  a  terminal.     Set  it  to  feed 

(139) 


140  DUTIES  AND  ItESPONSIBILITIES 

regularly.  The  proi^er  lubrication  of  valves  and 
cylinders  saves  coal. 

"Fourth.  DonH  forget,  when  starting  trains, 
to  do  so  carefully,  thus  preventing  damage  to 
drawbars  and  draft  rigging.  By  so  doing  you 
will  save  serious  delays  to  your  own  as  well  as 
other  trains.  All  delays  mean  extra  fuel  con- 
sumption to  make  up  time  lost. 

*''Do7iH  neglect  using  the  blow-off  cock,  as  it 
keeps  the  boiler  clean  and  water  in  good  condi- 
tion, and  insures  better  circulation  in  boiler. 
Result:  Better  steaming  engine  and  a  saving  in 
coal. 

"Fifth.  Don^t  allow  the  engine  to  slip.  This 
is  an  unnecessary  waste  of  coal,  wears  out  tires 
and  rails,  causes  great  damage  to  pins,  axles  and 
runuing  gear,  and  generally  results  in  spoiling  a 
fire. 

"Sixth.  Doti't  pull  out  of  a  station  ^,vith.  a 
train  (after  engine  has  stood  for  a  while,  and  fire 
was  allowed  to  get  low)  without  first  giving  the 
fireman  a  chance  to  build  up  the  fire.  The  time 
lost  waiting  to  do  this  will  save  coal,  and  can 
better  be  made  up  before  reaching  the  next  sta- 
tion.   Remember  this  when  you  get  a  time  order. 

"Seventh.  Do)iH  leave  the  reverse  lever  down 
in  corner  longer  than  necessary  when  pulling  out 
of  stations.  No  rule  can  be  made  to  govern  how 
the  throttle  and  reverse  lever  should  be  used. 
This  must  be  acquired  by  practice  and  observing 
the  performance  of  the  engine.  Bring  the  lever 
up  gradually  as  speed  is  acquired.  The  lever 
hooked  well  towards  center  of  quadrant,  with 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTl  VE  ENGINEER.  141 

throttle  well  open,  usually  gives  better  results 
than  using  the  throttle  to  govern  the  speed.  Up 
to  five  years  ago  we  considered  it  good  practice 
with  our  smaller  power  to  run  with  wide  open 
throttle,  and  as  short  a  point  of  cut-off  as  possi- 
ble consistent  with  weight  of  train;  but  in  our 
heavier  and  larger  engines  we  find  that  it  is  bet- 
ter at  many  times  to  throttle  the  engine.  Par- 
ticular attention  is  called  to  all  wide  fire-box  type 
of  locomotives.  The  engineer  can  permit  the 
reverse  lever  in  these  engines  to  remain  low  in 
the  quadrant  when  starting  from  a  station  for  a 
greater  length  of  time  than  with  the  other  types 
of  locomotives  without  pulling  the  fire  or  losing 
steam.  When  you  are  running  on  short  time, 
it  would  be  good  judgment  for  the  engineer  to 
take  advantage  of  this  when  pulling  out  from  a 
station.  In  this  engineers  will  use  their  best 
judgment. 

"Eighth.  DonH  put  four  or  five  or  more  shov- 
elfuls of  coal  into  the  fire  at  once.  One  or  two 
shovelfuls  will  give  better  results,  and  these  two 
should  not  be  thrown  in  the  same  spot.  It  is 
good  practice  to  fire  on  one  side  of  the  box  at 
one  time,  and  the  next  time  on  the  other  side  of 
the  box,  in  order  that  the  bright  fire  on  one  side 
may  take  up  the  gases  from  the  fresh  coal  on 
the  other  side.  This  will  reduce  the  smoke  and 
give  more  steam. 

"Always  fire  as  light  as  possible  consistent  with 
your  work.  Very  heavy  firing  will  make  your 
flues  and  staybolts  leak,  and  in  time  will  crack 
your  fire-box  sheets.     The  reason  for  this  is  that 


142  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

when  you  have  a  very  heavy  fire  the  air  will  not 
pass  up  through  it  readily,  and  the  gases  pass  ofE, 
because  there  is  not  sufficient  oxygen  to  unite 
with  them  to  produce  combustion,  and  as  the  gases 
must  get  air  from  somewhere,  the  air  is  then 
pulled  through  the  fire-door,  causing  the  chilling 
of  flues  and  sheets  as  referred  to  above. 

**NiNTH.  DonH  allow  steam  to  escape  at  pops 
unnecessarily.  Frequent  blowing  off  at  pops 
shows  improper  judgment,  and  implies  that  the 
engine  crew  is  not  practicing  economy.  Tests 
have  demonstrated  that  i  lb.  per  second,  or  15  lbs. 
per  minute,  is  wasted.  This  amounts  to  about 
one  ordinary  scoopful,  and  in  most  cases  may  as 
well  have  been  thrown  on  the  ground  as  into  the 
firebox.  There  are  only  133  scoopfuls  in  a  ton  of 
coal,  so  you  can  see  that  you  would  only  have  to 
have  your  pops  open  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  minutes  in  a  whole  day  in  order  to  throw 
a  ton  of  coal  away. 

"Tenth.  DonH  open  the  firebox  door  to  prevent 
steam  blowing  off  at  pops  when  engine  is  work- 
ing; dropping  dampers  is  a  better  practice.  The 
supply  of  air  is  cut  off,  and  combustion  is  par- 
tially suspended.  When  engine  stops  blowing 
off,  open  dampers  again  before  putting  in  coal. 
This  method  keeps  fire  in  better  condition  and 
saves  coal.  You  have  no  doubt  noticed  that  on  a 
certain  class  of  locomotives,  when  working  hard 
on  a  hill,  you  have  to  shut  your  dampers  in  order 
to  keep  your  fire  from  turning  over.  This  is  be- 
cause the  exhaust  pulls  too  much  air  up  through 
the  grates,  and  causes  your  coal  to  be  too  active, 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  143 

and  to  prevent  this  activity  of  coal,  as  well  as 
increased  combustion  which  follows,  we  consider 
it  a  ^ood  thing  to  drop  your  dampers,  as  per 
above. 

''Eleventh.  DonH  insist  upon  having  the  max- 
imum steam  pressure  with  pops  opening  occa- 
sionally when  handling  light  trains,  when  less 
pressure  will  handle  the  train  on  time,  thus 
avoiding  the  opening  of  pops. 

"Twelfth.  Don''t  forget,  when  engine  is  shut 
off  for  stations,  to  drop  your  dampers,  opening 
the  firebox  door  slightly,  if  necessary,  and  using 
the  blower  to  carry  off  the  black  smoke. 

"Thirteenth.  DofiH  blame  the  engine  or  coal 
if  engine  is  not  steaming  properly,  before  you 
have  ascertained  whether  or  not  both  of  you  are 
doing  your  duty.  Talk  it  over;  see  if  injector  is 
not  supplying  more  water  than  is  being  used,  or 
that  fireman  is  not  firing  too  light  or  too  heavy. 
Heavy  firing  is  responsible  for  more  poor  steam- 
ing engines  than  the  lighter  method.  You  all 
know  some  engine  crews  have  better  success  than 
others,  with  same  engines  and  conditions.  Think 
a  little;  there  must  be  some  cause  for  this. 

*^DonH  wait  until  you  get  the  sisjnal  to  pull  out 
before  building  up  the  fire.  This  should  be  done 
gradually  until  the  proper  thickness  has  been 
reached.  A  good  fire  to  start  with  is  essential 
to  maintain  the  proper  steam  pressure,  while  en- 
gine is  working  hard  getting  train  under  way, 
Afterwards  distribute  the  coal  evenly  on  sides, 
ends  and  corners.  Do  this  systematically,  keep- 
ing  in   mind   where  you   have   placed  the  last 


144  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

shovelful,  thus  avoiding  getting  holes  in  fire,  and 
prevent  piling  up  coal  all  in  one  place.  En- 
deavor to  keep  the  steam  pressure  uniform,  with 
as  little  black  smoke  as  possible.  Experience 
has  taught  that  engines  v^^'ith  draft  appliances 
properly  adjusted  require  very  little  coal  in  cen- 
ter of  firebox. 

''Fourteenth.  DonH  permit  the  water  to  get 
so  high  in  boiler  that  it  is  carried  over  into  the 
valves  and  cylinders.  This  usually  occurs  when 
pulling  out  of  stations,  and  the  water  carries  off 
the  oil,  which  not  only  results  in  cut  valves  and 
cylinders,  but  the  extra  friction  damages  the  en- 
tire valve  motion,  to  the  detriment  of  the  power 
of  engine  and  the  coal  record. 

^^DonH  gauge  the  amount  of  water  an  engine 
will  safely  carry  by  water  coming  out  of  stack. 
Keep  it  low  enough  to  insure  dry  steam  being 
used,  because  moist  steam  has  the  same  effect  as 
water.  Usually  one-half  glass  or  two  gauges 
give  best  results.  Be  careful,  however,  that 
when  ascending  a  grade,  and  you  are  about  to 
pitch  over  the  other  side,  that  you  have  sufficient 
water  to  keep  your  crown-sheet  thoroughly  cov- 
ered. If  your  custom  has  been  to  carry  high 
water,  try  less  and  note  results  in  better  handling 
of  tonnage,  also  saving  in  coal  and  oil. 

^'Fifteenth.  DunH  neglect  to  take  advantage 
of  your  excess  steam  before  your  engine  is  about 
to  pop  off,  by  making  a  heater  of  your  injector, 
blowing  steam  back  into  the  tank  to  warm  the 
cold  water,  but  avoid  getting  it  so  hot  that  the 
injector  will  not  lift  the  water.     By  doing  this 


OF  TEE  LOCOMOTIVE  EXGINEEE.  145 

you  will  keep  your  engine  from  blowing  off  at 
pops  when  standing  at  stations  after  the  boiler  is 
filled  up.  You  have  all  tried  warming  the  watei 
in  the  tank  to  help  a  poor  steaming  engine,  with 
good  results.  What  is  good  for  a  poor  steaming 
engine  will  surely  help  a  good  steaming  engine 
do  better.  Try  it  and  you  will  find  that  it 
will  not  only  save  w^ork  for  the  fireman,  but  will 
make  a  better  coal  record  for  the  engine  crew, 
besides  keeping  the  tank  from  sweating,  which 
you  are  aware  spoils  paint. 

''Sixteenth.  Don^t  think  the  fireman  alone  to 
blame  for  your  coal  record.  The  best  and  most 
economical  fireman  cannot  make  a  showing  with 
an  engineer  who  supplies  more  water  to  boiler 
than  is  being  used,  and  who  shuts  injector  off 
only  when  boiler  is  pumped  full.  The  proper 
handling  of  the  injector  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant matters  in  saving  coal.  Feed  water  to 
boiler  according  to  demands.  If  on  through  train 
keep  water  level  as  possible.  If  on  way  freight 
or  switch  trains,  lose  a  little  water  between  sta- 
tions. Fill  up  again  while  drifting  into,  stand- 
ing or  switching  at  station.  The  advantages  of 
supplying  less  water  than  is  being  used  between 
stations  are:  It  requires  less  coal  to  keep  up 
steam  pressure  when  running;  also  leaves  a  space 
so  injector  can  be  worked  to  avoid  pops  opening, 
and  heavier  fire  can  also  be  maintained  to  do 
switching,  without  the  possibility  of  the  fire  being 
pulled.. 

''Don^t  pull  out  after  making  a  stop  with  injec- 
tors working.     The  cool  water  introduced  during 


146  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 

period  throttle  was  shut  off  is  put  in  circulatioD 
throughout  the  boiler,  and  pointer  on  gauge 
drops  back  from  five  to  twenty-five  pounds. 
The  fireman  must  then  fire  heavier  to  regain  the 
lost  steam,  and  naturally  will  use  more  coal. 
This  condition  exists  also  when  engine  has  gone 
down  grade  with  throttle  shut  or  slightly  open. 
Shut  the  injector  off  before  opening  the  throttle. 
If  this  is  not  your  practice,  try  it  and  note  the 
difference. 

''Seventeenth.  DonH  wait  for  the  pops  to  open, 
and  use  this  as  a  signal  to  put  on  the  injector. 
Keep  an  eye  on  the  air  gauge,  steam  gauge  and 
water  glass.  You  all  know  this  can  be  done 
without  distracting  your  attention  from  the  track 
ahead.  A  look  for  an  instant  every  mile  or  two 
will  keep  you  informed,  and  is  a  good  habit.  Do- 
ing this  will  also  keep  you  posted  on  air  pressure, 
and  may  avoid  difiiculties  should  the  air  pump 
stop.  The  fireman  should  also  keep  an  eye  on 
the  water  glass,  as  the  engineer  is  sometimes 
compelled  to  keep  the  injector  at  work  to  pre- 
vent the  engine  blowing  off.  When  glass  is  full, 
the  fireman  should  fire  lighter,  to  give  the  en- 
gineer a  chance  to  shut  off  the  injector,  and  not 
have  engine  blow  off.  However,  this  condition 
should  only  exist  when  injector  cannot  be  worked 
fine  enough  to  just  supply  amount  used.  This 
sometimes  occurs  when  card  time  is  slow,  or  on 
down  grade,  or  when  running  with  light  train. 

''Eighteenth.  DonH  put  too  much  coal  under 
the  arch  of  engines  with  sloping  fireboxes,  be* 
cause  these  engines  naturally  pull  the  coal  ahead. 


OF  TEE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  147 

which  results  in  forward  section  of  grates  becom- 
ing stuck  and  clinkered  over,  and  fire  is  pulled 
in  back  end  of  firebox.  Experience  and  obser- 
vation will  teach  you  to  put  most  of  the  coal  in 
back  end  of  firebox. 

"Nineteenth.  DonH  think  engine  having  two 
firebox  doors  requires  twice  the  quantity  of  coal 
it  w^ould  if  engine  had  but  one.  The  extra  door 
is  for  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  coal  more 
evenly  over  the  grate  surface,  with  less  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  fireman. 

"Twentieth.  DouH  shovel  large  chunks  of  coal 
into  firebox,  because  you  find  them  on  the  tank. 
The  coal  house  men  have  instructions  to  break  it 
the  size  of  an  apple.  Tf  not  properly  broken,  re- 
port it  to  Road  Foreman  of  Engines  or  to  Master 
Mechanic,  instead  of  fellow  engineers  or  firemen, 
but  don't  think  it  a  hardship  to  break  some  oc- 
casionally. Better  break  it  than  to  throw  in 
large  chunks.     They  are  foundations  for  clinkers. 

"Twenty-first.  Do^iH  expect  the  fireman  to 
fire  the  engine  with  one  or  two  scoops  to  each 
fire,  and  also  ring  the  bell  for  highway  crossings 
and  stations.  Some  engineers  expect  this.  If 
engine  is  equipped  with  an  air  bell-ringer,  get 
into  the  habit  of  starting  the  bell-ringer  when 
blowing  the  whistle.  By  so  doing,  the  habit  will 
become  as  fixed  as  whistling  for  crossings  and 
stations.  Besides,  it  is  just  as  important.  Re- 
member the  engineer  is  responsible. 

"Twenty-Second.  Don't  put  in  a  heavy  fire 
about  the  time  the  engine  is  shut  off  for  a  station 
or  down-grade.     The  heavy  cloud  of  black  smoka 


148  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBlLITIEa 

is  evidence  the  engine  crew  is  not  working  in 
harmony  or  practicing  economy.  If  on  train 
that  stops  at  all  stations,  the  fireman  should 
guard  against  it  and  learn  when  to  stop  firing. 
He  will  be  governed  by  grade,  service  and  weather 
conditions.  If  train  does  not  make  all  station 
stops,  the  engineer  should  keep  the  fireman  in- 
formed of  intended  stops. 

"Twenty-third.  DonH  forget  that  different 
qualities  of  coal  and  different  make  of  grate  used, 
govern  the  shaking  of  grates.  Coal  that  fills  up 
and  clinkers,  requires  more  attention  than  the 
better  grade.  The  object  is  to  keep  the  grates 
free,  so  the  proper  amount  of  air  can  be  admitted, 

"Twenty-fourth.  DonH  neglect  cleaning  your 
fire  on  trains  that  are  long  hours  on  the  road. 
Make  use  of  the  first  opportunity.  You  will  get 
better  results  with  less  labor  and  coal,  and  avoid 
leaky  fiues.  Better  clean  out  a  small  amount 
two  or  three  times  than  not  clean  it  at  all. 

*'DonH  take  coal  or  water  oftener  than  neces- 
sary, as  it  requires  an  extra  amount  of  coal  to 
/again  get  a  heavy  train  in  motion,  especially  on  a 
grade.  Good  judgment  is  required,  in  order  not 
to  run  short  before  getting  to  next  coal  chute  or 
water  tank.  Where  possible  take  water  only 
from  tank  containing  good  water,  and  as  little  as 
you  can  from  tanks  containing  poor  water. 

"Twenty-fifth  DonH  forget  that  leaks  in  the 
air  pressure  are  being  kept  up  by  an  equal 
amount  of  steam  pressure.  As  it  takes  coal  to 
make  steam,  air  leakage  means  a  waste  of  coal. 
Keep  apparatus  on  your  engine  tight,  and  insist 
on  trainmen  doing  their  part. 


OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINEER.  149 

•'Twenty-sixth.  Dont  try  to  put  more  coal  on 
tank  than  will  lay  on  it  securely.  All  coal 
dropped  off  by  overloading  is  wasted.  Also  keep 
coal  from  falling  out  of  gangway  when  running. 
This  may  be  only  a  little  each  day,  but  it  all 
counts  against  your  coal  records  besides  it  looks 
badly  when  strewn  along  the  tracks.  You  can 
not  save  coal  by  the  ton  ;  it  must  be  in  pounds, 
which  in  time  makes  tons. 

"Twenty-seventh.  DonH  forget  to  make  an  in- 
telligent report  on  your  work  slip  on  arrival  at 
Round  House.  Consult  your  fireman  in  regard 
to  any  defect  that  has  come  to  his  notice,  es- 
pecially with  grates,  dampers  or  firing  tools. 

"Twenty-eights.  DonH  neglect  reporting  the 
pop  valves  ground  in  when  leaking  or  when  they 
blow  back  eight  or  ten  pounds  before  seating. 
Also  report  leaky  piston  rod  and  valve  stem  pack- 
ings, or  if  cylinder  packing  or  valves  are  blow- 
ing. All  these  leaks  draw  on  the  coal  pile  un- 
necessarily ;  it  takes  coal  to  generate  the  wasted 
steam.  This  also  applies  to  leaky  steam  heat 
appliances,  cylinder  cocks,  etc. 

"Twenty-ninth.  DonH  neglect  looking  at  coal 
report  each  month  to  see  how  you  stand  in  re- 
lation to  others  in  same  service  with  whom  you 
are  comparable.  The  other  crews  get  the  same 
pay  you  do,  and  it  should  be  your  aim  to  be  as 
economical  with  both  fuel  and  supplies  as  they 
are,  other  things  being  equal.  Keep  posted  and 
be  with  the  average.  It  will  be  to  your  credit 
and  interest  some  time  ;  therefore  aim  to  be  at 
the  top. 


150  DUTIES  AND  RESPONSIBTLITIES. 

"Thirtieth.  Don't  think  when  coal  report 
shows  you  using  only  two  pounds  more  per  100 
ton  mile  than  other  crews  in  same  service,  it  is 
close  enough.  This  means  two  pounds  more 
used  for  every  mile  you  hauled  100  tons — or  an- 
other way,  two  pounds  for  every  100  tons  hauled 
one  mile.  Figure  this  up  and  you  will  tind  in 
hauling  1,000  tons  100  miles,  a  difference  of  2,000 
pounds  or  one  ton.  This  method  of  showing  up 
the  individual  record  is  more  equitable  to  all 
than  on  basis  of  mile  run  per  ton  of  coal. 

"Thirty-first.  Don't  think,  after  reading  over 
this  chapter  of  ''' DonHs^^  you  should  save  coal  to 
the  detriment  of  the  service.  The  actual  amount 
required  to  make  up  time,  keep  on  time,  or  handle 
tonnage,  is  not  what  we  are  trying  to  save  ;  it  is 
the  waste."* 

*H.  Quayle. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


THE  LOCOMOTIVE  SUPERHEATER. 

In  the  progress  made,  looking  toward  a  more 
complete  utilization  of  steam  in  tlie  locomotive, 
the  line  along  which  developments  were  made  for 
many  years  was  that  of  compounding  the  cylinders 
and  thus  expanding  the  steam  in  two  stages  in- 
stead of  one.  In  recent  times,  however,  exhaus- 
tive tests  have  been  made  both  abroad  and  in  this 
country  with  what  is  known  as  the  "superheater," 
which  is  an  attachment  to  the  locomotive  designed 
primarily  to  reduce  cylinder  condensation  by 
superheating  the  steam.  It  is  claimed  that  this 
superheating  results  in  economy  of  water  con- 
sumption and  also  economy  of  fuel.  Superheated 
steam  also  affects  an  economy  by  reason  of  its 
increased  volume.  Speculation  has  been  made  as 
to  which  development — Compound  Cylinders  or 
the  Superheater — will  prove  to  add  most  largely 
toward  locomotive  capacity.  Possibly  a  combina- 
tion of  the  two  may  some  day  be  effected  with 
advantage. 

The  advantages  of  high  degree  superheating  as 
applied  to  simple  engines  at  the  present  time  has 
passed  the  experimental  stage,  and  has  now  been 
adopted  as  standard  by  some  of  the  largest  rail- 
roads in  this  country  and  abroad.  It  is,  therefore, 
safe  to  say  that  highly  superheated  steam  is  recog- 
nized by  a  steadily  increasing  number  of  railroad 
men  as  being  of  the  greatest  practical  value. 

The   theory   of  superheating  contains   several 

(151) 


152  SUPERHEATER 

important  points,  and  witliont  .^oing  into  the  realm 
of  tlierniod3'namic's,  we  are  able^to  explain  the 
advantages  which  are  claimed  for  superheated 
steam.  In  the  first  place,  superheated  steam  con- 
tains a  greater  amount  of  energy  per  pound  than 
dry,  saturated  steam,  if  both  are  at  the  same  pres- 
sure. This  increased  energy  in  the  form  of  stored 
heat  units  enables  the  superheated  steam  to  do 
■more  work  in  the  cylinder  than  saturated  steam 
could  do,  if  both  were  exhausted  at  the  same 
pressure. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  dry,  saturated  steam 
is  always  on  the  point  of  giving  up  some  of  its 
heat  and  turning  into  water.  Such  a  loss  not  only 
reduces  the  volume  and  pressure  in  the  cylinder,"' 
but  it  gives  up  the  store  of  latent  heat  contained 
in  the  particles  of  steam  which  are  thus  turned  to 
water,  and  as  the  latent  heat  is  a  large  percentage 
of  the  total  heat  required  to  produce  saturated 
steam,  for  instance — at  atmospheric  pressure 
965.8  heat  units  as  compared  with  1146.6  heat  units 
totally,  it  is  evident  that  the  loss  owing  to  conden- 
sation is  very  considerable.  If  now,  by  super- 
heating, we  give  to  the  steam,  which  is  so  ready  to 
fall  back  into  the  form  of  water,  a  temperature 
greater  than  that  due  to  its  pressure,  condensation 
will  not  take  place  until  the  superheated  steam  has 
given  up  the  whole  of  the  heat  represented  by  this 
extra  temperature.  There  is,  of  course,  a  reduc- 
tion in  temperature  when  superheated  steam 
strikes  the  comparatively  cold  walls  of  a  cylinder, 
but  there  is  no  condensation.  This  is  practically 
the  principle  upon  which  the  value  of  superheating 
depends. 

The  increase   of  temperature  in   superheated 
steam  augments  its  volume  and  all  the  moisture 


superheat'er 


153 


which  is  sure  to  be  contained  in  saturated  steam 
and  any  particles  of  water  which  may  have  been 
entrained  as  the  steam  entered  the  throttle  valve, 
are  evaporated,  and  thus  the  action  of  the  steam 
in  the  cylinders,  that  is,  its  expansion,  nearly  fol- 
lows the  laws  which  apply  to  a  perfect  gas. 

A  satisfactory  reduction  in  the  amount  of  water 
consumed  is  claimed  when  superheating  is  carried 
out.  This  amounts  to  from  about  15  to  35  per 
cent  for  superheated  steam  receiving  150  to  250 
degrees  Fahrenheit  of  superheat.    A  reduction  of 


' 

^^ 

a 

■ 

■---. 

-^ 

BOIL 

Lf?PI 

'ESS 

;re=i 

iO* 

^^ 

1 

4^ 

o 

DEG 

?EE( 

iFSL 

PERf 

lEAT 

F' 

**        20    40     60     80    100    120    140  160    180  200  220  240 
FIG.    I 

the  fuel  used  is  also  one  of  the  advantages  of 
superheating,  which  follows  from  the  fact  that 
less  water  has  to  be  evaporated  to  do  a  given 
amount  of  work. 

Figure  1  illustrates  very  clearly  the  advantages 
of  high  degree  superheating  as  compared  "with  the 
use  of  moderate  degrees  of  superheat.  The  curve 
which  has  been  reproduced  from  the  paper  entitled 
^'Locomotive  Performance  Under  Different  De- 
grees of  Superheat,"  and  was  presented  before 
the  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Associ- 


154 


SUPERHEATER 


ation  in  1910  by  Professors  Benjamin  and  Ends- 
ley,  shows  that  the  saving  in  fuel  increases  at  a 
higher  rate  than  the  amount  of  superheat;  for 
example,  with  saturated  steam,  'SV2  pounds  of  coal 
were  required  to  develop  one  horse  power  hour; 
with  80  degrees  of  superheat,  the  quantity  of  coal 
required  was  3.4  pounds.     This   represents   an 


Fig.   lA.     Schmidt  Superheater  with   Outside    Steam   Pipes. 


economy  of  2.8  per  cent.  With  just  the  double 
amount  of  superheat,  that  is,  160  degrees,  the  coal 
consumption  was  reduced  to  three  pounds,  which 
meant  a  sa^dng  of  14.8  per  cent;  in  other  words, 
doubling  the  amount  of  superheat  resulted  in  five- 
fold increase  in  economy.    In  the  paper  presented 


SUPERHEATER  155 

by  Professor  Bndsley  during  the  1911  convention 
of  the  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics' 
Association,  the  economies  obtained  with  steam 
ha\dng  more  than  160  degrees  of  superheat  were 
brought  forth  and  practically  confirmed  the  dia- 
gram given  in  Fig.  1.  It  was  shown  that  with  240 
degrees  of  superheat  the  economy  was  approxi- 
mately 32  per  cent ;  thus,  when  compared  with  the 
economy  at  80  degrees  of  superheat,  we  find  that 
by  increasing  the  superheat  three  times  that  we 
increased  the  percentage  economy  about  9  4-10 
times.  No  better  illustration  of  the  advantages  of 
highly  superheated  steam  from  a  practical  stand- 
point can  be  given. 

A  lower  boiler  pressure  can  be  used  with  super- 
heated steam  and  the  cost  of  boiler  maintenance 
is  thereby  reduced,  keeping  the  engine  less  time 
out  of  service,  owing  to  fewer  boiler  troubles.  A 
part  of  the  heat  of  the  flue  gases,  which  would 
otherwise  be  wasted,  is  taken  advantage  of  and 
applied  in  the  interests  of  economy  to  the  steam 
as  it  circulates  through  the  pipes  and  flues  of  the 
superheater. 

There  are  several  types  of  the  Fire  Tube  Super- 
heater now  in  use  which  differ  principally  in  the 
arrangement  and  location  of  the  header  castings. 

SCHMIDT,  TOP  HEADER,  SUPERHEATER. 

On  referring  to  Fig.  2  it  will  be  seen  that  the  superheater 
proper  consists  of  a  number  of  superheater  units,  each  unit  being 
■made  up  of  four  pieces  of  seamless  steel  tubing  about  lYz  inches 
O.  D.,  and  all  of  which  are  located  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
boiler,  having  their  back  end  swaged  down  to  4^4  inches  0.  D.  to 
secure  better  circulation  of  water  next  to  the  tube  sheet.  The  seam- 
less steel  tubes  are  connected  by  cast  steel  return  bends  to  form  a 
continuous  tube,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  To  ensure  the  proper  flow 
of  steam  through  these  units,  the  special  Superheater  Header, 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  provided,  which  takes  the  place  of  the  ordinary 
"' Tee "  or  " Nigger ' '  Head. 


156 


SUPERHEATER 


SUPERHEATER 


157 


158  SUPERHEATER 

This  header  is  so  designed  with  internal  walls  that  the  steam 
entering  it  from  the  drypipe  must  pass  through  the  passages 
marked  "W"  to  the  tubes  of  the  superheater  units  where  it  is 
superheated.  On  leaving  the  units,  the  superheated  steam  is 
returned  to  the  header,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  partition  walls, 
to  the  passages  marked  "S, "  connecting  it  with  the  steam  pipes 
and  steam  chests. 

The  direction  of  the  steam  flow  in  a  superheater  locomotive 
is  indicated  by  arrows  in  the  drypipe,  header,  superheater  units 
and  steam  pipes  of  Figs.  2  and  3  and  in  the  header,  Fig.  5. 

The  Ball  Joint  Connection  between  the  superheater  unit  and 
the  lower  face  of  the  header  is  made  with  a  single  bolt  centrally 
located,  as  shown  on  Figs.  2,  3  and  4.  In  making  these  ball  joints, 
the  ends  of  the  superheater  tubes  are  machined,  and  the  bored 
collars  which  form  the  ball  joints  driven  out.  They  are  then 
welded  and  turned  to  their  spherical  form.  The  ball  joints  and 
their  seats  in  header  are  ground  steam  tight. 

To  protect  the  ends  of  the  superheater  tubes  next  to  the  fire 
against  overheating  when  there  is  no  steam  flowing  through  them, 
especially  when  the  blower  is  on,  it  is  necessary  to  stop  the  flow 
of  hot  gas  through  the  large  flues.  This  result  is  secured  by 
separating  the  front  end  of  the  superheater  units  from  the  rest 
of  the  smoke  box  by  means  of  a  vertical  partition  plate  located 
just  in  front  of  the  superheated  body,  extending  across  the  smoke 
box  and  from  the  top  of  the  smoke  Idox  down  to  the  back  edge  of 
the  table  plate.  From  the  bottom  edge  of  this  partition  a  horizontal 
plate,  reaching  across  the  smoke  box,  extends  back  to  the  tube- 
sheet  just  below  the  large  flues. 

This  horizontal  plate  contains  an  opening  which  is  closed  by 
the  superheater  damper,  Fig.  6. 

The  vertical  partition  is  so  designed  that  the  portion  between 
the  header  and  table  plate  consists  of  three  or  four  plates.  These 
plates  are  equipped  with  handles,  and  by  raising  them  slightly 
they  may  be  removed  and  thus  permit  free  access  to  the  super- 
heater units  and  header.  Hand  holes  are  also  provided  in  the  sides 
of  smoke  box  for  inspection  of  superheater  parts  from  the  outside 
without  opening  the  smoke  box  door. 

The  superheated  damper  is  held  open  by  pressure  of  steam  from 
the  steam  chest  acting  on  the  piston  in  the  damper  cylinder,  and 
permits  hot  gases  to  flow  through  the  superheater  flues.  It  is 
closed  by  a  weight  or  a  spring  as  soon  as  the  steam  is  out  of  the 
steam  chest,  and  stops  the  flow  of  hot  gases  through  the  large 
flues. 

On  opening  the  throttle,  the  steam  passes  through  the  dry- 
pipe  and,  on  reaching  the  header,  is  forced  through  the  passage 
"W"  to  the  various  units  forming  the  superheater.  On  leaving 
the  superheater  units  the  steam  is  delivered  to  the  passages  "S," 
from  which  it  passes  to  the  steam  pipes  and  steam  chests.  On 
reaching  the   steam   chests,   it   passes  automatically  to   the  super- 


SUPERHEATER 


159 


heater  damper  cylinder  through  the  connecting  pipe.  The  steam 
pressure  acting  on  the  piston  of  the  superheater  damper  cylinder 
opens  the  damper,  and  this  permits  the  free  flow  of  hot  gases 
from  the  fire  to  the  smoke  box  through  the  large  boiler  flues  which 
contain  the  superheater  tubes. 

A  part  of  the  heat  of  the  gases  flowing  through  the  large  flues 
is  absorbed  by  the  surrounding  water.  Another  portion  is  absorbed 
by  the  tubes  of  the  superheater  units  and  transmitted  by  them  to 
the  steam  passing  through  them  and  superheating  it. 

In  order  that  the  gases  with  the  cinders  which  they  carry  with 
them  may  meet  with  the  minimum  of  obstruction  in  their  flow 
through  the  large  flues,  the  return  bends  of  the  superheater  units 
are  provided  with  lugs  which  raise  the  tubes  of  the  superheater 
units  from  the  bottom  of  the  flues  and  permit  a  practically  free 
and  unobstructed  flow  of  the  gases  under  and  between  the  tubes 
forming  the  unit. 

On  closing  of  the  throttle  the  steam  passes  from  the  steam  chest 
and  at  the  same  time  from  the  superheater  damper  cylinder  through 


Fig.   4.     Schmidt   Superheater  Unit. 

the  pipe  connections,  allowing  the  weight  on  the  damper  shaft  arm 
to  automatically  close  the  damper,  thus  stopping  the  flow  of  hot 
gases  through  the  large  flues  when  there  is  no  steam  passing 
through  the  superheater  imits. 

Under  certain  conditions  of  service,  such  as  switching,  etc., 
where  service  is  intermittent,  another  form  of  the  automatic  acting 
superheater  damper  cylinder  is  sometimes  used.  This  form  permits 
the  superheater  damper  to  remain  open  at  all  times  except  when 
the  blower  is  on,  when  it  is  closed  by  steam  from  the  blower  pipe. 

The  amount  or  degree  of  superheat  is  the  increase  of  the  final 
temperature  of  the  steam  leaving  the  superheater  over  that  of  the 
steam  and  water  in  the  boiler.  For  example,  steam  at  200  pounds 
gauge  pressure  has  a  temperature  of  387.5  degrees  F.  on  entering 
the  drypipe.  On  leaving  the  superheater  suppose  it  has  a  temper- 
ature of  600  degrees  F.     In  that  case  it  has  been  superheated  in 


160 


SUPERHEATER 


its  passngp  through  the  superheater  by  an  amount  equal  to  the 
diflference  of  GOO  and  387y2,  i.  e.,  212%  degrees  F. 

To  secure  the  best  results  the  quantity  of  heat  absorbed  by 
the  superheater  units  should  be  suthcient  to  superheat  tlie  steam 
to  an  average  temperature  of  600  degrees  F. 

For  cleaning  the  flues  the  use  of  air  of  at  least  100  pounds 
pressure  should  be  used.  It  should  be  applied  through  a  %-inch 
gas  pipe,  which  is  inserted  at  the  back  end  of  the  flue  and  gradu- 
ally worked  forward  under  the  superheater  unit,  blowing  the  dirt 
out  of  the  front  end  of  the  flue.  The  use  of  air  for  blowing  out 
the  boiler  flues  is  recommended  in  preference  to  steam  or  water. 

In  case  steam  is  used  instead  of  air  for  blowing  out  the  flues, 
the  boiler  should  be  under  steam  to  avoid  the  condensation  of 
water  in  the  flue,  as  it  would  be  liable  to  mix  with  the  ashes,  etc., 
and  form  a  coating  on  the  inside  of  the  large  flues.  The  super- 
heater damper  should  be  open  in  all  cases  while  cleaning  the 
flues. 

The  superheater  units  and  header  are  in  the  top  portion  of 
the  boiler,  symmetrically  located,  and  will  not  interfere  with  work 
in  the  smoke  box. 


0-0 


Fig.    5.     Schmidt   Superheater  Header. 


The  design  of  the  unit  and  arrangement  of  the  front  end 
presents  the  least  obstruction  to  the  free  flow  of  gas  from  the 
fire  through  the  smoke  box  to  the  stack. 

The  design  permits  the  use  of  external  steam  pipe  conrieetions 
to  the  cylinders,  and  this  reduces  the  obstruction  offered  by  the 
ordinary  type  of  saturated  engines. 

When  necessary  to  remove  the  small  flues  in  the  bottom  portion 


SUPERHEATER 


161 


of  the  boiler,  they  may  be  taken  out  ■without  removing  the 
superheater  parts. 

No  extra  joints  are  required  in  the  steam  pipes  and  the  existing 
joints  are  rendered  more  accessible  than  on  a  saturated  engine. 

Each  individual  unit  can  be  disconnected  from  the  header  by 
loosening  a  single  bolt. 

The  joint  between  the  unit  and  header  is  the  ball  joint,  which 
permits  easy  removal  and  replacement  of  units. 

The  minimum  number  of  shapes  of  superheater  tubes  is  re- 
quired, as  every  unit  in  each  horizontal  row  is  exactly  alike. 

The  usual  stresses  in  the  cylinder  casting,  due  to  difference  in 
temperature  between  the  live  and  exhaust  passages,  are  reduced 
through  the  use  of  external  steam  pipe  connections,  which  remove 
the  hot  steam  from  the  saddle. 


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Fig.    6.      Schmidt   Superlieater  Damper. 


Inspection  of  the  superheater  tubes  and  joints,  boiler  flues 
and  front  tube  sheet,  which  can  be  made  without  removal  of  any 
of  the  superheater  parts,  should  cover  examination  for  air  and 
steam  leaks  in  front  end,  for  any  accumulation  of  cinders  and 
ashes  or  deposits  on  return  bends  in  boiler  flues. 

All  air  and  steam  leaks  should  be  stopped.  In  the  case  of 
steam  leaks  between  the  header  and  the  superheater  units,  joints 
should  be  immediately  tightened,  if  necessary  regrinding  ball 
joints   or  applying  a  new   gasket  to  flat  joints.      In   case   a  new 


162  SUPERHEATER 

gasket  is  applied  the  joint  should  be  tightened  again  after  the 
gasket  has  \)von  uiulor  steam  lieat  the  first  time. 

Suital)le  handhoios  are  ])rovided  in  the  sides  of  the  smoke 
box  so  that  the  superlieater  can  be  inspected  by  means  of  an 
electric  Hash  lifjht  witliout  opening  the  smoke  box  door. 

Tiie  lines  can  be  easily  inspected  from  the  front  while  a  light 
is  held  at  tlie  firebox  end. 

At  regular  intervals  the  boiler  flues  should  be  blown  out  the 
same  as  the  boiler  tubes  are  blown  out,  and  thoroughly  cleaned  of 
all  ashes,  cinders  and  soot.  At  the  same  time  any  deposit  which 
may  have  accumulated  on  the  return  bends  nearest  the  firebox 
should  be  broken  off  and  removed. 

Every  two  months  the  superheater,  the  steam  and  exhaust  pipes 
should  be  tested  with  warm  water  of  about  working  pressure  to 
make  sure  that  all  joints,  etc.,  are  tight  in  front  end.  The  return 
bends  at  firebox  end  should  be  examined  from  firebox  end  at  this 
test.  In  setting  the  flues  the  prosser  is  used  in  preference  to  the 
roller  whenever  possible  in  working  over  the  superheater  flues. 
The  prosser  should  not  have  less  than  twelve  sections,  and  the 
rollers  not  less  than  five  rolls.  Inserting  plugs  in  the  regular  tubes 
surrounding  superheater  flues  when  using  roller  has  proved  good 
practice 

The  superheater  damper  and  rigging  should  work  freely,  and 
the  damper  should  be  wide  open  when  the  throttle  is  open  and 
there  is  steam  in  the  damper  cylinder.  With  no  steam  in  the 
damper  cylinder  the  damper  should  be  closed. 

The  damper  should  be  closed  when  the  blower  is  used  for 
firing  up. 

The  piston  rod  extension  should  be  inspected  at  regular  inter- 
vals, and  have  extension  guide  adjusted  to  maintain  the  piston 
central  in  the  cylinder. 

\\Qien  handling  the  engines  about  the  engine  house,  yards,  etc., 
before  the  cylinders  are  warmed,  the  cylinder  cocks  should  be 
kept  open  until  dry  steam  appears. 

Operation. — The  general  oi)eration  of  the  superheated  steam 
locomotive  is  the  same  as  the  ordinary  saturated  steam  locomotive. 

Cylinder  cocks  should  be  kept  open  when  starting  until  dry 
steam  appears. 

In  starting,  the  reverse  lever  should  be  put  in  full  gear  to 
insure  oil  distributing  the  full  length  of  the  valve  bushing. 

In  general,  superheated  steam  locomotives  should  be  operated 
•with  full  throttle  and  short  cut  off,  when  working  conditions  will 
permit. 

On  account  of  the  larger  diameter  of  cylinders  used  in  super- 
heater engines,  the  throttle  must  be  opened  slowly  and  special 
care  taken  to  prevent  slipping  of  the  drivers. 

The  firing  should  be  light  and  regular  to  produce  as  high  a 
flame  temperature  and  as  perfect  combustion  as  possible  in  the 
firebox. 


SUPERHEATER  163 

A  smoky  fire  has  a  lower  flame  temperature,  reduces  the  degree 
of  superheat  and  uses  more  coal. 

The  engineer  should  know  that  the  superheater  damper  is  open 
while  using  steam  and  closed  when  steam  is  shut  off. 

If  the  engine  does  not  steam  freely  make  sure  that  the  super- 
heater damper  is  open. 

Leaks  in  the  front  end  or  superheater  units,  flues  stopped  up 
and  derangement  of  draft  appliances  not  only  affect  the  steaming 
of  the  engine,  but  reduce  the  degree  of  superheat  and  should  be 
reported  and  corrected  at  once. 

Blows  in  cylinder  and  valve  packing  should  be  reported  and 
receive  proper  attention,  as  they  will  cause  scoring,  due  to  removal 
of  oil  from  wearing  surfaces. 

Kepairing. — When  the  engine  is  in  for  general  repairs  the 
superheater  parts  should  be  carefully  cleaned,  examined  and  all 
defective  parts  should  be  repaired  or  replaced. 

The  superheater  units  should  be  painted  with  a  thin  coat  of 
hot  tar  as  soon  as  cleaned  to  prevent  rusting. 

The  ball  joints  should  be  reground  and  joint  should  show  a  good 
continuous  bearing  all  around  the  ball. 

With  the  flat  gasket  type  of  joint  between  header  and  super- 
heater units  the  flange  on  the  unit  should  come  up  parallel  to  the 
face  of  header  so  that  the  gasket  has  only  to  make  the  joint  and 
does  not  have  to  take  care  of  any  angle  between  the  flange  and 
header. 

In  replacing  the  superheater  units  it  is  essential  that  they  be 
properly  located  in  the  top  of  the  flue  to  prevent  obstruction  to 
the  flow  of  gases  through  the  flue. 

In  locating  the  superheater  header,  its  face  for  superheater 
unit  joints  should  be  square  with  the  tube  sheet,  parallel  to  the 
top  row  of  flues  and  the  correct  distance  above  them  to  insure 
correct  position  of  the  superheater  unit  in  the  flue.  It  should  be 
firmly  supported  at  the  ends  by  Header,  Supports  securely  fastened 
to  the  sides  of  the  smoke  box. 

The  Joint  Ring  between  the  header  and  drypipe  should  have 
a  flat  and  ball  face  to  permit  free  adjustment  of  the  header. 

On  reassembling,  the  superheater  should  be  subjected  to  same 
water  tests  as  boiler. 

COLE,  SIDE  HEADER,  SUPERHEATER. 

The  Cole  Superheater  shown  in  Fig.  7  differs  from  the  Schmidt 
in  that  headers  are  provided  for  each  cylinder  and  located 
at  the  side  of  the  smoke  box  instead  of  at  the  top.  The  internal 
construction  of  the  headers  is  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
With  this  design  it  is  generally  found  necessary,  in  order  to 
secure  the  best  results,  to  apply  a  cross-over  pipe  for  the  super- 
heated steam  between  the  two  headers. 


164 


SUPERHEATER 


SUPERHEATER 


165 


166 


SUPERHEATER 


VAUGHAN-HORSEY,  COMB  HEADER,  SUPERHEATER. 

In  the  Vaughan-Horsey  Superheater,  shown  in  Fig.  8,  the  satu- 
rated and  superheated  steam  headers  are  completely  separated,  each 
header  having  a  main  body  extending  transversely  across  the 
front  end.  The  upper,  or  saturated  steam  header,  is  connected  to 
the  drypipe  as  usual,  and  has  subheaders  extending  downward. 
The  header  for  superheated  steam  is  located  with  its  main  body 
down  and  subheaders  extending  upward  provided  at  both  ends 
with  flanges  connecting  with  the  steam  pipes. 


Fronl  Vevi 

Nantem  Pxilic  Fai/wat/.  £mer6cr>  Superheater. 

Fig.    9. 


SuperhKTted 
Steam 


LongirmJimi  Section  at  Header, 


The  headers  are  located  so  that  the  subheaders  extend  past 
each  other  alternately,  and  are  in  front  of  and  between  the  lines 
of  the  large  flues.  Into  the  front  face  of  these  subheaders,  steel 
fittings  are  screwed.  The  fittings  have,  as  j-equired.  two  or  four 
openings  to  which  the  superheater  units  are  attached.  The  joint 
between  the  fitting  and  the  superheater  unit  is  formed  by  a  copper 
gasket,  and  nut  locks  are  attached  to  prevent  nuts  working  loose. 


SUPERHEATER 


167 


168  SUPERHEATER 

EMEESON  SUPERHEATER. 

The  Emerson  superheater  (Figs.  9  and  10)  is  of  the  smoke-tube 
type.  It  consists  of  a  system  of  small  return  tubes  arranged  within 
fire  tubes  of  larger  diameter.  The  large  fire  tubes  are  about  5 
inches  in  diameter  and  are  distributed  over  the  entire  flue-sheet 
space.  Each  large  tube  contains  four  superheater  pipes  arranged 
in  the  shape  of  an  elongated  coil  made  up  by  screwing  into  steel 
return  bends,  forming  a  continuous  double-looj)ed  tube.  The 
front  ends  are  fastened  to  headers  by  the  usual  method  of  expand- 
ing with  rollers,  the  roller  in  this  case  being  inserted  in  a  hole 
at  the  front  of  the  header,  which  is  afterwards  closed  with  a 
screw  plug. 

The  steam  from  the  drypipe  enters  headers  which,  in  general 
form  and  position,  are  similar  to  the  usual  steam  pipes.  Each 
header  is  divided  vertically  into  compartments,  forming  the  front 
compartment  for  saturated  steam  and  the  rear  compartment  for 
superheated  steam.  Hollow  lugs  are  cast  on  either  side  of  the 
headers  and  the  superheater  tubes  fastened  to  these.  When  the 
throttle  is  opened  steam  enters  the  front  header  and  passes  through 
the  small  tubes  and  return  bends  to  the  rear  or  superheated  steam 
header,  and  thence  to  the  steam  chests, 

JACOBS  SUPERHEATER. 

The  Jacobs  superheater  (Figs.  11. and  12)  is  of  the  smoke-box 
fire  tube  type,  and  of  such  design  that  its  application  can  be  readily 
made  to  locomotives  of  the  usual  type  without  radical  changes  to 
the  boiler  or  front  end.  The  principal  feature  in  its  operation  is 
the  utilization  of  waste  heat  in  the  combustion  gases  without  a 
sacrifice  of  effective  heating  surface  in  the  boiler. 

In  its  form  and  construction,  the  Jacobs  superheater  consists 
of  two  steel  drums,  fitted  with  a  series  of  horizontal  fire  tubes 
between  the  heads  and  with  steam  pipe  connections.  The  rear 
drum  is  made  oval  in  cross  section  to  provide  for  passage  of 
drypipe  extension  to  the  front  drum  and  is  placed  directly  before 
the  front  flue  sheet  of  the  boiler.  The  forward  drum  of  the 
superheater  is  circular  in  cross  section  and  placed  just  ahead  of 
the  exhaust  pipe.  For  facilitating  repair  work  on  boiler  tubes, 
the  rear  drum  is  placed  about  24  inches  ahead  of  the  front  flue 
sheet,  and  a  manhole,  provided  in  the  bottom  of  the  smoke-box, 
gives  access  to  a  boilermaker.  A  20-inch  return  flue  in  the  front 
drum  and  a  6-inch  central  flue  in  the  rear  drum  are  lined  up  so 
that  leaky  or  defective  flues  may  be  cut  out  of  the  boiler  and 
removed  through  the  front  end  without  the  necessity  of  taking  out 
the  superheaters. 

The  tubes  in  the  rear  drum  of  the  superheater  are  inserted 
without  copper  ferrules,  then  rolled  and  expanded,  after  which 
they  are  welded  at  both  ends.     The  tubes  in  the  front  drum  are 


SUPERHEATER 


169 


Jacobs  Smoke-Box  Superheater. 


170 


SUPERHEATER 


Fig.  12.     Jacobs  Superheater  Applied  to  Tandem  Compound  Engine. 


SUPERHEATER  171 

rolled,  expanded  and  beaded,  similar  to  common  practice  with 
boiler  flues.     The  drums  are  held  in  place  by  Z-shaped  brackets. 

When  the  throttle  is  opened  steam  passes  from  the  drypipe  to 
the  rear  head  of  the  front  superheater,  where  baffle  plates  of  thin 
steel  are  arranged  to  direct  the  steam  in  a  somewhat  spiral  course 
over  all  tlie  tubes,  thence  to  the  rear  superheater,  which  is  arranged 
with  baffle  plates  similar  to  the  front  superheater,  and  out  of  the 
drum  through  steam  pipe  connection  to  tlie  steam  chests. 

In  all  types  of  Jacobs  superheaters  the  flue  gases  pass  from 
the  boiler  flues  through  the  tubes  of  the  rear  superheater.  This  is 
accomplished  by  deflector  plates  placed  around  the  back  end  of  the 
rear  drum  and  front  end  of  the  forward  drum  of  the  superheater, 
except  for  a  space  of  18  inches  at  the  bottom.  These  plates 
extend  from  the  outer  shell  of  the  superheater  drums  to  the  smoke- 
box  shell.  Upon  leaving  the  rear  drum  the  gases  in  the  central 
and  top  flues  are  deflected  around  the  petticoat  pipe  and  elbow, 
which  serves  to  connect  the  large  cylindrical  flue  in  the  forward 
drum  to  the  petticoat  pipe.  The  exhaust  nozzle  extends  through 
this  elbow  and  the  exhaust  steam  travels  up  and  out  of  the  stack 
through  the  petticoat  pipe  without  circulating  through  the  smoke- 
box  or  coming  in  contact  with  the  superheater  drums.  After  the 
gases  pass  through  the  rear  drum  and  are  partially  deflected  as 
above  described,  they  travel  forward  through  the  tubes  of  the 
front  drum  and  are  drawn  back  through  central  return  flues  in 
the  front  drum  to  the  petticoat  pipe  and  out  of  the  stack. 

With  this  design  of  superheater  any  desired  degree  of  super- 
heat may  be  obtained  by  setting  the  front  flue  sheet  back  farther 
in  the  boiler  and  utilizing  this  space  for  superheating  surface. 


172  SUPERHEATER 

FOSTER  LOCOMOTIVE  SUPERHEATER 

Following  the  lines  of  simplicity  generally  found  in  Ameri- 
can locomotive  design,  a  new  fire  tube  type  of  locomotive 
superheater  has  been  designed  which  eliminates  a  number  of 
the  parts  generally  found  in  the  designs  now  in  use.  It  is  so 
arranged  that  any  required  number  of  double  loop  pipes  may 
be  entered  in  the  enlarged  boiler  flues  set  in  a  horizontal  row 
across  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the  boiler  in  accordance  with 
the  practice  which  has  developed  the  highest  degree  of  super- 
heat for  the  smallest  amount  of  superheating  surface.  The 
two  ends  of  each  individual  unit  are  connected  to  a  steel  plate 
header  located  near  the  top  of  the  front  end  and  integral  with 
the  front  tube  sheet,  by  an  expanded  joint  in  the  same  way 
that  the  boiler  tubes  are  joined  to  the  frcfht  tube  sheet.  This 
header  has  two  compartments,  one  for  saturated  and  the 
other  for  superheated  steam  and  one  end  of  each  unit  connects 
to  each  compartment.  The  entire  superheater  is  encased  in 
a  steel  plate  box  provided  with  a  damper  in  the  bottom  to 
divert  the  gases  from  the  superheater  portion  as  desired. 

The  construction  provides  for  a  superheater  which  is 
integral  with  the  boiler,  and  is  applied  and  maintained  by 
means  common  to  boiler  construction  and  may  be  properly 
maintained  by  a  class  of  labor  skilled  only  in  boiler  work. 
There  are  six  features  of  special  interest  to  be  noted  in  this 
construction.  These  are  the  use  of  a  compact  steel  plate 
header  which  does  not  require  the  use  of  stays;  the  connect- 
ing of  the  ends  of  the  unit  pipe  to  the  header  by  means  of  the 
usual  tube  expanded  joint;  the  substitution  of  welded  returned 
bends  at  the  ends  of  the  loops  in  the  unit  pipes  for  cast  steel 
return  bends;  the  arrangement  of  units  so  that  any  one  can 
be  removed  without  moving  any  other;  the  construction  which 
permits  the  removal  of  the  dry  pipe  without  disturbing  the 
superheater  header  or  units,  and  the  arrangement  for  tighten- 
ing the  unit  pipes  to  the  header  without  disturbing  any  of  the 
front  end  apparatus  or  appliances. 

The  header  is  of  open  hearth  forged  steel  and  is  secured  in 
place  on  the  front  tube  sheet  in  the  location  occupied  by  a 


SUPERHEATER 


173 


174  SUPERHEATER 

tee  head  in  a  saturated  steam  locomotive.  It  has  a  steam 
tight  connection  at  the  end  of  the  dry  pipe  as  is  shown  in  the 
illustration.  The  plate  dividing  it  in  two  compartments  is 
welded  in  place  and  contains  an  opening  or  manhole  of  a 
size  to  permit  the  dry  pipe  to  pass  through  it.  This  opening 
is  closed  by  a  specially  constructed  diaphragm  plug,  which 
can  be  removed  when  the  cover  plate  has  been  taken  off. 
Steam  pipes  connect  direct  to  the  header  and  thus  one  less 
ground  joint  is  required  in  this  construction  than  in  a  satu- 
rated locomotive.  The  header  being  riveted  to  the  tube  -sheet 
becomes  a  permanent  part  of  it  and  can  be  left  in  its  position 
as  long  as  the  sheets  last.  The  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the 
header  for  connection  to  the  unit  pipes  are  formed  the  same 
as  the  boiler  tube  holes  in  the  front  tube  sheet  and  the  unit 
pipes  are  connected  to  them  in  the  same  manner  as  'boiler 
tubes  by  means  of  a  Prosser  or  roller  expander.  Beading,  of 
course,  is  not  necessary,  as  there  is  but  little  tendency  for 
them  to  pull  out  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  make  a  steam 
tight  joint.  There  are  hand  holes  in  the  upper  part  of  each 
of  the  compartments,  that  are  closed  by  a  special  type  of 
hand  hole  plug  which  can  be  inserted  from  the  outside  and  is 
sealed  by  a  copper  gasket  or  ring.  This  type  of  plug  has  been 
in  successful  use  on  superheaters  in  stationary  practice  for 
many  years.  Above  the  whole  header  a  section  of  the  front 
end  sheet  is  cut  out  and  fitted  with  a  removable  cover  plate 
which  will  give  access  to  the  top  of  the  header  from  the  out- 
side of  the  locomotive.  This  direct  accessibility  reduces  the 
time  required  for  inspection  and  tightening"  element  connec- 
tions very  greatly. 

The  method  of  inserting  a  unit  is  to  remove  one  of  the  hand 
holes  from  the  openings  directly  opposite  the  tube  joints.  An 
expanding  tool  can  then  be  operated  easily  through  the  open- 
ings in  the  top  of  the  smoke  box.  A  roller  expander  has  proved 
the  best  for  this  work.  An  air  drill  or  hammer  can  then  be  used 
on  the  outside  and  the  joints  properly  made. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  remove  a  unit,  either  of  two 
methods  can  be  used.  A  flue  cutter  can  be  inserted  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  expander  and  the  pipe  is  cut  off  even 


SUPERHEATER  ^  175 

"With  the  joint,  or  a  flue  pusher  can  be  used,  pushing  the  flue 
from  the  sheet.  The  ends,  in  the  latter  case,  are  swedged 
down  to  a  gauge  below  the  size  of  the  hole  before  being 
replaced. 

As  will  be  seen  in  the  illustration,  the  vertical  sections  of 
each  of  the  unit  pipes  at  the  front  are  offset  to  each  side  and 
so  arranged  that  it  is  possible  to  remove  any  unit  independently 
of  the  others.  The  elements  are  anchored  in  place  by  a  simple 
clamp  and  bolt  which  does  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  the 
removal  of  the  individual  element  without  loosening  others. 
If  a  unit  is  removed  by  cutting  off,  the  slight  loss  in  length  is 
made  up  by  changing  the  position  of  one  of  the  bends  slightly. 
The  flue  pusher  method  of  removal,  however,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. 

In  place  of  using  cast  steel  return  bends  with  the  unit 
pipes  screwed  or  welded  in  place,  this  design  employs  a 
■Relded  joint  between  the  two  sections  of  pipes.  This  joint 
is  made  by  first  bending  the  ends  of  the  pipe  to  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees  and  then  sawing  them  off  on  a  line  parallel 
to  the  axis.  These  two  parts  are  then  brought  together  and 
electrically  welded.  This  construction  is  used  at  all  of  the 
return  bends. 

The  damper  operating  mechanism  is  of  the  customary 
form  which  closes  the  damper  by  means  of  a  counter  weight 
when  the  throttle  is  closed  and  opens  it -only  by  steam  pressure 
on  the  opening  of  the  throttle. 

Removable  plates  are  arranged  in  the  front  of  the  damper 
box  to  facilitate  cleaning  and  the  removal  or  examination 
of  any  of  the  connections. 


17C  SUPERHEATER 


PYROMETER  FOR  SUPERHEATER  LOCOMOTIVES 

DESCRIPTION     AND    INSTRUCTIONS     FOR    PYROMETER    USED    ON    LOCO- 
MOTIVES  EQUIPPED   WITH   SUPERHEATERS 

General.  The  electric  pyrometer  or  temperature  indica- 
tor, as  applied  to  superheater  locomotives,  is  a  device  which 
indicates  the  actual  temperature  of  the  steam  in  the  steam 
chest.  The  readings  are  in  Fahrenheit  degrees.  The  dial  of 
the  indicator  is  graduated  between  the  range  of  250  degrees 
and  750  degrees.  Its  purpose  is  to  assist  engineers  and  fire- 
men to  obtain  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  operation 
of  their  locomotives.  A  full  description  of  the  details,  and 
the  way  in  which  they  are  to  be  connected  to  each  other,  and 
how  they  should  be  attached  to  the  locomotive,  is  given  below. 

"When  the  engine  is  standing,  or  drifting,  with  the  throttle 
closed,  the  pointer  of  the  instrument  should  be  towards  the 
left  hand  side  of  the  dial,  reading  between  350  degrees  and 
390  degrees,  on  engines  operating  with  a  boiler  pressure  of 
200  pounds  or  less.  As  the  engine  starts  to  work  steam  the 
pointer  should  move  from  left  to  right  along  the  scale  on 
the  indicator,  showing  an  increased  temperature  in  the  steam 
chest,  as  the  engine  is  worked  harder,  until  when  working 
under  average  conditions,  it  should  register  between  600  de- 
grees and  650  degrees. 

When  the  locomotive  is  working  under  these  average  con- 
ditions, and  a  perceptible  drop  in  the  temperature  is  noted, 
some  of  the  following  defects,  either  in  the  operation  or  the 
condition  of  the  locomotive  may  be  looked  for: 

First:  It  may  be  that  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  being 
carried  too  high  and  that  priming  occurs  (water  carried  over 
into  the  superheater).  The  superheater  then  has  to  evaporate 
this  water,  and  the  final  temperature  of  the  steam  is  reduced. 

Second:  The  fire  may  not  be  in  proper  condition,  due  to 
heavy  firing  or  holes  in  the  fire;  either  condition  will  reduce 
the  fire-box  temperature  and  consequently  the  final  tempera- 
ture of  the  steam. 


SUPERHEATER 


177 


178  SUPERHEATER 

Third:  A  portion,  or  all,  of  the  superheater  flues  may  be 
stopped  up. 

Fourth:  Leaks  in  the  front  end  will  interfere  with  the 
drafting  of  the  locomotive  and  prevent  the  free  passage  of 
gases  through  the  large  flues  containing  the  superheater  units, 
thus  preventing  the  proper  temperature  of  the  steam.  (This 
applies  to  the  Schmidt  type  of  fire  tube  superheater.) 

Fifth:  Failure  of  the  damper  to  operate  properly  inter- 
fei'es  with  the  circulation  of  the  gases  through  the  flues  and 
results  in  a  reduction  of  superheat.  (This  applies  to  the 
Schmidt  type  of  fire  tube  superheater.) 

The  first  two  of  these  conditions  can  be  prevented  by  the 
enginemen;  the  last  three  should  be  reported  for  attention  at 
the  terminal. 

With  working  pressure  on  the  boiler  and  the  cylinders  com- 
paratively cold  (such  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  locomotive 
had  been  standing  for  some  time  and  the  cylinders  cooled  be- 
low the  temperature  of  saturated  steam)  the  pointer  should 
be  at  the  extreme  left  end  of  the  scale  and  show  the  lowest 
reading. 

In  making  a  terminal  start  the  pointer  should  move  up 
rapidly  to  the  temperature  of  saturated  steam  corresponding 
to  the  pressure  carried  (at  200  pounds  boiler  pressure  the 
reading  should  be  388  degrees).  From  this  reading  it  should 
move  to  the  right  less  rapidly  until  the  maximum  tempera- 
ture of  from  600  degrees  to  650  degrees  is  reached.  It  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  rapidity  with  which  the  tempera- 
ture increases  depends,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  the  height  of 
the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  the  condition  of  the  fire. 

If  the  instrument  fails  to  operate  in  the  manner  indicated, 
the  tests  described  below  should  be  applied. 

Description. — The  complete  pyrometer  consists  of  five 
parts: 

1.  Indicator,  located  in  the  cab. 

2.  "Thirty-five-foot  Lead"  connecting  indicator  to  satu- 
rated steam  fixture. 

3.  Saturated  steam  fixture,  located  in  the  boiler  above  the 
■water  line. 


SUPERHEATER  ,  179 

« 

4.  Twelve-foot  Extension  Piece,  connecting  saturated  steam 
fixture  with  superheated  steam  fixture. 

5.  Superheat  Steam  Fixture,  located  either  in  steam  pipe 
or  steam  chest. 

Location. — The  general  arrangement  of  the  pyrometer  on 
a  locomotive  is  as  follows: 

1.  Indicator  should  be  firmly  supported  on  the  boiler,  and 
be  in  easy  view  of  the  engineer.  It  should  be  six  inches  or 
more  from  the  boiler.  Less  distance  may  result  in  inaccurate 
reading  of  the  indicator,  due  to  the  heat  from  the  boiler. 

2.  The  "Thirty-five-foot  Lead"  should  be  protected  from 
rough  handling  and  firmly  clamped  in  position.  Usually  this 
may  conveniently  run  along  the  hand  rail. 

3.  The  Saturated  Steam  Fixture  should  be  screwed  into 
the  boiler  shell,  so  that  the  end  of  the  thermo  couple  will  pro- 
ject into  the  steam  space. 

4.  The  Twelve-foot  Extension  Piece  between  the  saturated 
and  superheated  steam  fixture,  should  be  protected  against 
damage  or  rough  handling,  and  firmly  clamped  in  position. 

5.  Superheated  steam  fixture  is  to  be  screwed  into  the 
steam  chest  (or  steam  pipe,  if  outside  connected  pipes  are 
used).  When  located  in  a  horizontal  position,  it  should  be 
firmly  braced  against  vibration. 

Installation — 1.  The  Indicator  should  be  placed  in  a  vertical 
position,  and  attached  to  a  rigid  bracket.  Three  lugs  on  the 
case  are  provided  for  this  purpose.  The  bracket  should  be  se- 
curely attached  to  the  boiler  shell,  and  braced  to  prevent  vibra- 
tion. The  sealing  wire  on  the  larger  cover  should  not  be  broken. 
If  the  indicator  is  damaged,  or  is  not  operative,  when  tested 
out,  one  that  is  in  proper  working  order  should  be  applied 
and  the  defective  instrument  returned  to  the  manufacturers. 

2.  The  Saturated  Steam  Fixture  should  be  screwed  steam 
tight  into  the  114-inch  pipe  tap  hole  in  the  boiler  shell  by  a 
wrench  applied  to  the  hexagon  G.  The  cap  A  then  removed, 
after  taking  out  the  locking  screw  B.  The  set  screw  H  then 
loosened  and  the  casing  T  taken  off.  The  hexagon  nut  J  then 
loosened,  after  which  the  block  E  may  be  rotated  until  the 
arrow  marked  "CAB"  points  in  the  direction  from  the  "35- 


180  SUPERHEATER 

foot  lead"  (from  the  indicator)  will  enter  the  fixture.  When 
the  block  is  properly  located,  tighten  the  nut  J,  care  being 
taken  to  prevent  the  block  E  from  turning,  while  this  is  being 
done.  This  casing  T  may  then  be  replaced.  In  putting  this 
on,  the  opening  in  the  side  (which  gives  access  to  the  hexagon 
nut  J)  should  be  downward,  so  that  water  and  dirt  will  not 
collect  in  this  space.  The  two  holes  in  this  casing,  for  the 
lead  and  the  extension  piece,  are  the  same  size,  so  that  no 
difliculty  will  be  experienced  in  connecting  them,  whether  the 
fixture  be  on  the  left  or  right  hand  side  of  the  engine.  The 
set  screw  H  should  then  be  tightened.  The  space  around  the 
block  E  should  be  packed  with  asbestos  rope  packing.  After 
the  lead  and  extension  piece  have  been  connected  (as  de- 
scribed below)  the  cap  A  should  be  replaced,  and  the  locking 
screw  B  inserted.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

3.  The  Superheated  Steam  Fixture  should  then  be  applied 
In  the  same  general  way,  as  the  saturated  steam  fixture.  The 
opening  in  the  casing  T  in  this  fixture  should  be  turned  so 
that  as  much  protection  will  be  provided  against  the  weather 
as  possible. 

4.  The  "35-/oof  Lead"  from  the  indicator  to  the  saturated 
steam  fixture  protected  by  a  %-inch  metal  armor,  and  at  the 
ends  provided  with  brass  ferrules  marked  "IND."  at  the  end 
connected  to  the  indicator,  and  "SAT.  END"  at  the  end  con- 
nected to  the  saturated  steam  fixture.  In  connecting  this  lead 
to  the  indicator,  the  cover  of  the  terminal  box  M  is  removed, 
the  gland  P  unscrewed,  and  the  packing  in  the  stuffing  box  N 
removed.  The  nuts  and  jam  nuts  from  the  binding  posts  K 
and  L  should  be  removed,  the  socket  wrench  furnished  with 
the  pyrometer  being  used  for  this  purpose.  The  end  D  of 
the  lead  should  be  slipped  through  the  gland  P  and  the  stuffing 
box  N,  into  the  terminal  box  M.  The  terminal  marked  + 
should  be  put  over  the  binding  post  marked  in  the  same  way. 
The  other  end  of  the  lead  over  the  opposite  binding  post.  The 
+  wire  of  the  lead  is  indicated  by  a  plus  mark  on  the  brass 
ferrule  near  the  end  of  the  lead.  The  nuts  and  jam  nuts  on 
the  binding  posts  should  then  be  put  on  and  tightened  securely. 
The  packing  then  inserted  in  the  stuffing  box  N,  and  the  gland 
P  screwed  up  tightly.   The  lock  screw  Z  should  then  be  tight- 


SUPERHEATER  181 

ened  securely,  entering  the  hole  in  the  ferrule  D.  Any  strain 
on  the  binding  posts  will  be  prevented,  if  the  lead  is  pulled. 
The  cover  on  the  terminal  box  is  then  to  be  replaced.  To  con- 
nect the  other  end  of  the  lead  to  the  saturated  steam  fixture, 
remove  the  nuts  and  jam  nuts  from  binding  posts  Ri  and  R3. 
Attach  the  ends  of  the  lead,  re-apply  the  nuts  and  jam  nuts, 
and  tighten  the  set  screw  Cj  into  the  hole  in  the  ferrule  Di,  in 
the  same  general  way  as  described  above  for  connecting  the 
lead  to  the  indicator. 

5.  The  Twelve-foot  Extension  Piece  should  then  be  con- 
nected in  the  same  manner  to  the  binding  posts  R2  and  R4 
of  the  saturated  steam  fixture,  and  to  R5  and  Re  of  the  super- 
heated steam  fixture.  The  ends  of  this  extension  piece  are 
marked  "SAT.  END"  and  "SUP.  END,"  and  should  be  con- 
nected to  the  saturated  and  superheated  steam  fixtures  re- 
spectively. Be  sure  that  ends  of  the  extension  (marked  +) 
are  connected  to  the  proper  binding  post.  Care  to  be  taken 
that  the  set  screv/s  C.  and  C3  hold  tfie  ferrule  firmly  so  as 
to  prevent  any  strain  coming  on  the  binding  posts  and  the 
connections. 

6.  Caps  A  of  the  saturated  and  superheated  steam  fix- 
tures should  then  be  replaced,  and  the  locking  screws  B 
tightened. 

7.  Under  no  circumstances  should  the  length  of  the  35-ft. 
lead  or  the  12-ft.  extension  piece  be  changed.  No  splices  nor 
joints  to  be  made  in  these  parts,  as  inaccuracy  in  readings 
of  the  instrument  may  result. 

8.  See  that  the  hexagon  nuts  J  in  both  fixtures  are  tight 
before  steam  pressure  is  applied.  In  tightening  them  see 
that  block  E  does  not  turn. 

Adjustment: — 1.  To  adjust  the  indicator  after  the  en- 
tire apparatus  has  been  assembled  and  connected  properly  as 
described  above,  the  short-circuiting  screws  U  (on  the  ter- 
minal box  of  the  indicator)  should  be  turned  upward,  until 
they  bear  solidly  against  the  binding  posts  K  and  L.  This 
cuts  the  indicator  out  of  circuit. 

(Note:  Some  of  the  first  instruments  made  had  a  short- 
circuiting  device  employing  only  one  screw,  and  which  oper- 


182  SUPERHEATER 

ated  in  a  manner  opposite  to  the  one  described.  Where  such 
instruments  are  found,  it  is  necessary  to  turn  down  the  short- 
circuiting  screw,  in  order  to  cut  the  indicator  out  of  circuit.) 
2.  The  pointer  of  the  indicator  should  now  stand  at  the 
temperature  of  saturated  steam  at  the  working  pressure  of 
the  boiler.  This  will  not  be  affected  by  the  temperature  of 
the  two  thermo-couple  ends,  as  they  are  not  now  in  circuit 
with  the  indicator.  The  following  table  gives  pressures  and 
temperatures,  through  the  range  of  ordinary  locomotive  prac- 
tice: 


Pressure 

Temperature 

Pressure 

Temperature 

Lbs. 

Fahr. 

Lbs. 

Fahr. 

170 

375 

195 

386 

175 

378 

200 

388 

180 

380 

205 

390 

185 

382 

210 

392 

190 

384 

215 

394 

If  the  indicator  does  not  show  the  proper  temperature 
under  these  conditions,  remove  the  cap  screw  O  and,  with  a 
screw  driver,  turn  the  adjusting  screw  V  (Fig.  1)  until  the 
pointer  stands  at  the  proper  place.  When  the  pointer  is  thus 
set,  the  cap  screw  O  should  be  replaced.  Short  circuiting 
screws  U  should  then  be  turned  downward  until  they  are 
tight,  thus  placing  the  indicator  in  circuit.  If  working  steam 
pressure  is,  at  this  time,  on  the  boiler,  the  pointer  will  move 
BO  as  to  indicate  the  temperature  existing  at  the  end  of  the 
superheated  steam  fixture.  If  the  pressure  on  the  boiler  is 
below  working  pressure,  or  if  no  pressure  at  all  exists,  the 
pointer  may  move  either  to  the  right  or  left,  depending  on  the 
temperature  in  the  steam  chest. 

4.  A  sealing  wire  should  then  be  run  through  the  short 
circuiting  screws  U,  and  the  locking  posts  W.  Sealing  wire 
should  now  be  applied  to  the  cap  screw  O,  covering  the  adjust- 
ing device.  Sealing  wire  on  the  cover  of  the  terminal  box 
M  should  be  applied.  Also  to  the  locking  screws  B  in  the 
saturated  and  superheated  steam  fixtures,  as  well  as  to  the 
locking  screws  H,  holding  the  casing  T.  Sealing  wires  should 
be  run  through  set  screws  Cj,  Cj,  C3  and  C4. 

The  pyrometer  is  now  ready  for  service. 


SUPERHEATER  183 

REMOVAL  OF  SATURATED   OR   SUPERHEATED   STEAM    FIXTURE 

1.  Remove  locking  screw  B. 

2.  Remove  cap  A, 

3.  Remove  jam  nuts  and  nuts  from  binding  posts. 

4.  Loosen  set  screws  holding  ferrule  of  the  lead  or  ex- 
tension piece,  and  withdraw  the  latter. 

5.  Loosen  set  screw  H  and  remove  the  casing  T. 

6.  Unscrew  hexagon  nut  I,  thus  loosening  thermo-couple 
in  the  body  G.  The  block  E  and  the  thermo-couple,  as  well  as 
the  piece  Ej  and  the  protecting  piece  Ej,  may  then  be  removed 
together. 

7.  The  hexagon  nut  J  may  then  be  unscrewed  from  the 
piece  Ej. 

8.  To  re-assemble  the  fixture  proceed  in  the  reverse  order. 
(Note: — Removal   of  the  block  E   and   the   thermo-couple 

from  the  hexagon  piece  G  should  only  be  made  when  leakage 
has  occurred  and  it  is  necessary  to  clean  the  ground  seat  be- 
tween the  piece  G  and  the  piece  Ej.  The  hexagon  nut  I 
tightens  these  two  pieces.  If  well  tightened  when  the  fixture 
is  first  applied,  there  will  rarely  be  any  cause  for  taking  the 
fixture  apart.) 

MAIXTEXAXCE   AND    OPEBIATIOX 

1.  The  pyrometer  should  have  attention  similar  to  that 
given  to  air  and  steam  gauges.  It  should  be  tested  by  some 
responsible  man  at  frequent  intervals,  in  order  to  find  out  if 
correct  readings  are  being  shown.  To  determine  this,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  short-circuit  the  indicator,  and  note  if  the 
pointer  stands  at  the  proper  place.  This  can  be  done  at  any 
time,  either  on  the  road  or  in  the  shop,  and  adjustment  and 
correction  can  be  made  if  found  necessary,  without  any  delay 
to  the  engine. 

2.  In  testing  the  instrument  by  short-circuiting  as  referred 
to,  only  the  sealing  wire  on  the  short-circuiting  screws  U  need 
be  broken. 

3.  If  found  necessary  to  adjust  the  pointer,  remove  the 
cap  screw  O,  and  turn  the  adjusting  screw  V,  until  pointer 
stands  at  the  proper  place.  The  cap  screw  O  should  then  be 
replaced,  and  the  sealing  wire  put  on. 


184  SUPERHEATER 

4.  If  the  apparatus  is  not  in  working  order,  tlie  pointer 
will  not  move  when  the  engine  is  running  under  steam.  If 
this  condition  be  found,  the  instrument  should  be  reported 
as  "not  working."  To  find  the  cause  of  this  condition,  careful 
inspection  of  the  binding  posts  should  be  made,  to  see  that 
the  connections  are  not  loose,  and  that  the  circuit  is  not  broken 
at  any  other  point.  Dirty  or  loose  connections  may  sometimes 
be  found.  Leaky  fixtures  permitting  moisture  to  collect  be- 
tween the  nut  J  and  the  block  E  will  cause  incorrect  readings. 
Careless  application  of  lead  and  extension-piece  may  break 
insulation  on  the  wires  and  cause  a  short-circuit. 

5.  If  the  saturated  or  superheated  steam  fixture  should 
be  found  leaking  around  the  hexagon  nut  J,  this  may  be  easily 
tightened  up  by  a  wrench  applied  through  the  opening  in  the 
casing  T.  In  tightening  the  nut  J,  care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  nut  I  does  not  turn;  also  in  tightening  the  nut  J  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  block  E  does  not  turn. 

6.  If  the  indicator,  the  saturated,  or  the  superheated  steam 
fixture  i?  found  to  be  out  of  order,  it  should  be  replaced  by 
one  which  is  in  proper  working  condition,  and  the  defective 
piece  reported  to  the  manufacturers.  No  attempt  should  be 
made  to  take  apart  or  repair  the  indicator  or  thermo-couple 
under  any  condition. 

NAMES  OF  PARTS— FIG.  1 
A— Cap. 

B — Locking  Screw. 
C„  Cj,  C3,  C— Set  Screw, 
D,  Dj,  D2,  D3 — Ferrule. 
E— Block. 
E, — Piece. 

Ej — Protecting  Piece. 
G — Hexagon,  or  Body. 
H— Set  Screw. 
I — Hexagon  Nut. 
J — Hexagon  Nut. 
K — Binding  Post. 
L — Binding  Post. 
M' — Terminal  Box. 


SUPERHEATER 


185 


riG-i 


SUPERHEATER 


185 


N— Stuffing  Box. 

O^Cap  Screw. 

P— Gland. 

R,  Ri,  Ro,  R3,  R^,  R5,  Re— Binding  Posts. 

T— Casing. 

U — Short  Circuiting  Screw. 

V — Adjusting  Screw. 

W — Locking  Post. 

Z — Lock  Screw. 


]\roDGE-SLATER    IMPROVED    SPARK    ARRESTERS 

The  Kludge-Slater  spark  arrester  is  entirely  new  in  the 
art  in  several  respects.  This  is  particularly  so  in  its  re- 
movable feature.  In  construction,  it  is  an  irregular  box — the 
top,  bottom  and  back  of  which  are  of  sheet  steel,  the  sides 


and  front  of  perforated  metal  or  netting;  all  assembled  and 
reinforced  with  angle  irons.  It  has  been  called,  on  account 
of  this  formation,  the  "Box  Front  End,"  and  takes  the  place 
of  the  netting  in  other  types  of  front  end  arrangements. 


186  SUPERHEATER 

The  sheets  forming  the  spark  arrester  are  made  to  tem 
plate  and  they  are  assembled  complete  in  the  shop  before 
being  placed  in  the  locomotive  smoke  box.  All  fitting  in 
forming  the  box  can  be  accurately  done  and  inspected,  in- 
suring against  any  opening  larger  than  the  mesh  of  the  net- 
ting (which  has  proven  most  difficult  in  the  ordinary  front 
end  -spark-arrester  arrangement  where  the  netting  has  to  be 
fitted  to  the  curvature  of  the  smoke  box).  It  is  then  placed  in 
position,  bolted  at  the  top  to  the  smoke  stack  or  smoke  stack 
extension  and  at  the  bottom  to  the  exhaust  stand.    Three  angle 


irons,  supporting  the  box  in  place  at  the  top,  complete  the 
installation.  The  steam  and  the  blower  pipes  do  not  enter  the 
box,  so  that  no  fitting  is  required  after-  the  box  is  placed 
in  position.  This  does  away  with  the  most  prevalent  cause 
of  spark  emission;  namely,  poorly  fitted  joints  and  warped 
plates. 

Where  suits  are  brought  against  railway  companies  for 
damages  on  account  of  fire — as  is  oftentimes  done  without 
justification — it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  take  the  old-style  net- 
ting out  of  the  locomotive  and  produce  it  in  court  in  the  con- 


SUPERHEATER  187 

dition  and  form  in  which  it  performed  its  function  in  the 
engine.  It  is  well  known  that  the  removal  of  the  ordinary 
style  of  netting  disarranges  it  so  much,  that  the  average  jury- 
man can  hardly  be  convinced  that  while  in  place  it  was  spark 
proof.  The  Mudge-Slater  spark  arrester  can  be  removed  bodily 
without  disarranging  or  damaging  a  single  part  of  it  and  thus 
can  be  produced  in  court  just  as  it  was  in  the  engine,  so  that 
no  question  can  be  raised  as  to  its  previous  condition. 

It  can  clearly  be  seen  that  it  is  possible  to  inspect  all 
around  the  spark  arrester  without  removing  various  plates, 
nettings,  etc.  This  results  in  a  considerable  saving  of  labor 
and  insures  reliable  and  constant  inspection.  Any  defective 
or  worn  netting  plates  can  be  quickly  removed  and  replaced 
without  damaging  or  destroying  any  other  part  of  the  box. 

It  is  possible  to  open  up  the  nozzle  somewhat  with  this  con- 
struction, due  to  the  fact  that  a  larger  netting  area  is  obtained, 
which  tends  toward  a  better  draft.  The  increase  in  square 
inches  of  netting  area  per  flue  with  this  arrangement,  as  com- 
pared with  the  ordinary  front  end,  is  not  in  any  case  less  than 
ten  per  cent,  and  in  some  cases  as  high  as  twenty-five  per 
cent;  furthermore,  such  enlargement  of  the  exhaust  nozzle 
results  directly  in  fuel  economy. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

VALVES  AND  VALVE  GEARS. 

The  valve  is  the  device  which  admits  steam  to,  and 
allows  it  to  exhaust  from  the  cyhnder  of  every  steam 
en2;ine.  The  form  of  ^•alve  having;  a  flat  seat  upon 
which  it  slides  backward  and  forward  is  termed  a 
slide  valve.  The  slide  valve  was  used  as  a  means 
of  distributing  steam  in  a  cylinder  before  the  loco- 
motive was  invented,  and  has  ever  since  been  an  im- 
portant factor  therein.  * 


Fig.  a. 

Graphic  Definitions  of  Valve  Dimensions. 

Plain  Slide  Valve. 

The  plain  slide  valve  was  long  the  standard  fo*- 
locomoti\e  practice,  but  in  more  recent  years  with  thb 
increased  size  of  locomoti\es  and  their  correspond- 
ingly  larger  ports,  together  with  the  advent  of  the 

*Other  volumes  of  "The  Science  of  Railways"  contain  manji 
illustrations  and  much  information  relative  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  steam  by  the  slide  valve. 


(18S) 


VALVES  189 

present  era  of  high  steam  pressure,  the  friction  be- 
tween valve  and  valve  seat  became  excessive.  Thesa 
strains  must  be  borne  by  all  parts  of  the  valve  gear, 
which  increased  greatly  the  frictional  resistances 
therein,  and  also  taxed  to  the  limit  the  power  of  the 
engineer  in  reversing  the  engine.  Reversing  cyHn- 
ders  were  invented  and  applied  to  many  locomotives, 
to  the  relief  of  the  engineer,  but  not  in  any  way  reduc- 
ing the  frictional  resistance,  which  was  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  engine's  entire  power. 

Finally  it  was  found  that  by  reUeving  much  of  the 
steam  pressure  from  the  top  of  the  valve — that  is, 
partially  balancing  it— the  friction  could  be  greatly 
reduced.  Of  the  many  means  devised  to  balance  the 
slide  valve  but  few  have  attained  that  point  of  use- 
fulness to  merit  special  description  herein,  but  those 
widely  used  throughout  the  country  are  here  given. 

The  engraving  given  of  the  plain  shde  valve 
(Fig.  A)  gives  graphic  definitions  of  the  various 
valve  dimensions  as  they  are  technically  known. 

In  order  that  the  meanings  of  the  various  terms 
used  in  connection  with  valves  and  their  gears 
may  be  understood,  the  following  definitions  and 
explanations  are  given : 

Lap  is  that  portion  of  the  valve  which  over- 
laps the  steam  ports  when  the  valve  is  in  its  mid- 
position.  The  lap  on  the  edge  of  the  valve  which 
admits  steam  to  the  cylinder,  is  called  "steam 
lap"  and  that  on  the  edge  which  allows  the  steam 
to  escape  from  the  cylinder  to  the  exhaust  passage 
is  called  ''exhaust  lap."  For  some  classes  of 
service  this  exhaust  lap  is  made  a  negative  quan- 
tity and  .becomes  "exhaust  clearance,"'  or  as  mere 

Cut-off  is  the  cutting  off  of  the  supply  of  live 


190  VALVES 

steam,  or  steam  in  the  steam  chest,  from  the  cylin- 
der before  the  piston  has  completed  its  stroke  and 
thus  making  use  of  the  expansive  force  of  the 
steam. 

Release  is  the  opening  of  the  exhaust  port  to  the 
cylinder  through  the  exhaust-arch  of  the  valve 
and  allowing  the  expanded  steam  to  escape  to  the 
atmosphere. 

Expansion  is  the  expanding  of  the  steam  in  the 
cylinder  from  a  small  volume  at  a  high  pressure 
to  a  large  volume  at  a  low  pressure.  The  period 
of  expansion  extends  from  "cut-off"  to  "re- 
lease." The  amount  of  expansion  is  regulated 
by  the  steam  and  exhaust  lap  used  on  the  valve. 

Point  of  compression  is  the  stopping  of  the 
escape  of  the  exhaust  steam  before  the  piston  has 
reached  the  end  of  its  stroke. 

Compression  is  the  compressing  of  the  entrap- 
ped exhaust  steam  at  tlie  point  of  compression  by 
the  piston  as  it  advances  in  its  stroke.  It  con- 
tinues either  up  to  the  end  of  the  stroke  or  to  the 
point  of  "pre-admission." 

,»  Back  pressure  is  the  pressure  exerted  ^y  the 
steam  against  the  piston  while  the  exhaust  port  is 
open  after  the  piston  has  commenced  its  return 
stroke. 

Admission  is  the  admitting  of  steam  into  the 
cylinder.  This  point  is  either  at  the  beginning  of 
the  stroke  or  slightly  before.  If  before,  it  is  cal- 
led "pre-admission." 

Lead  is  the  amount  or  width  of  opening  of  the 
steam  port -for  the  admission  of  steam  to  the  cyl- 
inder that  the  valve  setting  gives  when  the  pis- 
ton is  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke.  The  effect 
of  lead  is  to  permit  an  earlier  cut-off,  to  increase 


VALVES  191 

compregsion  and  to  spcure  as  nearly  full  steam 
chest  pressure  as  possible  in  the  cylinder  up  to 
the  point  of  cut-off,  by  giving  a  large  port  open- 
ing as  the  jiiston  commences  its  stroke. 

Travel  is  the  distance  that  the  valve  itself 
travels.  Over-travel  is  the  distance  that  the 
steam  edge  of  the  valve  travels  after  the  steam 
port  is  wide  open. 

Seal  is  the  overlapping  of  the  steam  edges  of 
the  valve  to  prevent  leaking. 

Clearance  is  the  volume  of  the  space  between 
the  piston  and  the  valve,  when  the  piston  is  at  the 
end  of  its  stroke. 

With  no  outside  or  steam  lap,  there  would  be  no 
expansion,  and  with  no  inside  or  exhaust  lap,  the 
(jompression  and  release  would  both  occur  at  the 
jsame  time.  Outside  lap  delays  the  admission  of 
steam  and  hastens  the  cut-off,  consequently  allow- 
ing greater  expansion.  Inside  lap  hastens  com- 
pression and  prolongs  the  expansion  by  delaying 
the  point  of  exhaust.  Inside  clearance,  on  the  con- 
trary, will  delay  the  compression  and  hasten  the 
release  of  the  exhaust. 

THE  RICHARDSON  BALANCED  SLIDE  VALVE. 

Referring  to  the  illustrations,  Figs.  1  and  2  are 
longitudinal  and  transverse  sections  through  the 
centre  of  an  ordinary  locomotive  steam-chest  fitted 
with  this  valve.  Fi"-.  3  is  a  plan  of  the  valve,  and 
Fig.  4  is  an  elevation  of  one  of  the  end  Dacking  strips 
and  springs.  The  only  alteration  made  in  the  plain 
valve  is  the  addition  of  the  balance  plate  (A),  and  the 
substitution  of  a  valve  suited  to  receive  the  four 
packing  strips  {p,  p,  p,  p.) 

In  these  engravings  the  balance  plate  is  shown 
bolted  to  the  steam-chest  cover,  but  itis  obvious  that 


132 


VALVES 


Fig. 1. 

Richardson  Balanced  Slide  Valve. 

Longitudinal  Section. 


Fig.  2. 

Richardson  Balanced  Slide  Valve. 

Transverse  Section. 


Fig.  3. 
Plan. 

Richardson   Balanced  Slide  Valve. 


Fie.  4. 


Elevation  of  End 
Packing    Strips 
and  Springs. 


VALVES  193 

they  may  be  cast  in  one  piece  if  desired.  As  will 
be  noticed,  the  four  sections  of  packing  enclose  a 
rectangular  space  {ss,  Fig.  3),  which  is  made  equal 
in  area  to  the  amount  of  valve  surface  which  it  is 
desirable  to  relieve  of  pressure ;  the  packing  strips 
preventing  steam  from  entering  this  space  and  its 
communication  with  the  exhaust  port  in  the  valve, 
through  the  small  hole  (h),  relieving  it  from  any 
-  pressure  that  might  otherwise  accumulate.  These 
packing  strips,  four  in  number,  as  previously 
noticed,  are :  the  two  longer  ones,  plain,  rectangu- 
lar pieces  of  cast  iron,  while  the  shorter  ones,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  are  made  with  gib-shaped  ends  to 
retain  them  in  place. 

Under  each  packing  strip  is  placed  a  light  semi- 
elliptic  spring — one  of  which  is  shown  at  m,  Fig. 
4 — which  serves  the  purpose  of  holding  the  pack- 
ing strips  against  the  balance  plate  when  steam  is 
shut  off.  While  in  operation,  the  different  sections 
are  held  in  steam  tight  contact,  by  direct  steam 
pressure,  with  the  balance  plate  and  with  the  inner 
surface  of  the  grooves  cut  to  receive  them,  the 
joint  being  made  complete  by  the  abutting  of  the 
ends  of  the  long  sections  against  the  inner  sur- 
faces of  the  gibbed  sections  at  the  four  corners. 

The  Richardson  form  of  balanced  valve  is  used 
more  extensively  than  any  other  balanced  valve 
in  the  country, 

THE  ALLEN-RICIIARDSON   BALANCED 
SLIDE   VALVE. 

The  purpose  of  the  Allen  valve  is  to  prevent,  in 
part,  wire-drawing  of  steam  when  running  at  high 
speed  with  the  valve  cutting  off  early  in  the  stroke. 


194 


VALVES 


The  Allen  ports  furnish  an  additional  passage  for 
the  admission  of  steam  at  such  times;  thus,  when 
the  steam  port  is  open  one-half  inch  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner,  the  port  of  the  cored  passage  is  also 


rrri 


._.rrT! 


Fig. 


Allen-Richardson  Balanced  Slide  Valve. 
Longitudinal    Section. 


Fig.    6. 

Allcn-Richardson  Balanced  Slide  Valve. 

Transverse   Section. 

open  to  the  same  extent  on  the  other  side  of  the 
valve  and  consequently  the  effective  area  of  the 
steam  port  is  doubled  and  becomes  equal  to  a 
single  port  open  of  one  inch. 


VALTES  195 

The  wire-drawing  which  takes  place  when  an 
engine  is  running  at  high  speed  with  the  valve  cutting 
off  early  in  the  stroke  is  thus  much  diminished  and 
the  consequent  economy  of  steam  and  coal  is  obvious. 
The  lessened  wire  drawing  implies  a  higher  average 
pressure  on  the  piston  when  working  at  the  same 
cut-off  and,  therefore,  the  usual  average  pressure  can 
be  obtained  with  a  shorter  cut-off,  thus  effecting  an 
appreciable  economy.  Hence  the  unbalanced  Allen 
valve  effects  a  better  and  more  economical  distribu- 
tion of  steam;  but  its  use  is  attended  with  certain 
disadvantages.  The  bearing  surface  on  the  face  of  a 
slide-valve  is  never  sufficiently  large  to  enable  it  to 
wear  well  under  the  heavy  pressure  of  steam,  and  this 
wearing  surface  is  still  further  reduced  in  the  Allen 
valve,  owing  to  the  internal  steam-ports.  The 
internal  passage  virtually  divides  the  valve  into  two 
parts  and  the  pressure  of  steam  acting  on  the  outer 
part  springs  and  bends  its  working  face  below  that  of 
the  internal  or  exhaust  part  of  the  valve.  The  useful 
wearing  face  thus  becomes  reduced  to  a  space  about 
half  as  wide  as  the  outside  lap  of  the  valve.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  surprising  that  the  Allen  vahe  when 
unbalanced  wears  very  rapidly  and  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  constantly  facing  valves  and  seats  and  the 
loss  of  steam  in  blowing  through  leaky  valves,  coun- 
terbalances the  advantages  gained  by  the  diminished 
amount  of  wire-drawing.  These  disadvantages  are 
entirely  overcome  by  properly  balancing  the  valve, 
and  then  are  gained,  not  only  all  the  advantages  of 
the  Richardson  balancing  device,  but  also  the 
increased  steam  economy  from  using  the  Allen  ports. 

To  be  sure  of  getting  the  very  best  results  from  the 


,196 


VALVES 


use  of  the  balanced  Allen  valve,  the  ports  and  bridges 
should  exceed  the  full  travel  of  the  valve  b\-  at  least 
one-eighth  of  an  inch.  The  radius  of  the  hnk  should 
al\va\s  be  as  long  as  permissible,  to  avoid  an  exces- 
sive increase  of  lead  when  cutting  off  early  in  the 
stroke. 


THE  AMERICAN  BALANCED  VALVE. 

Two  forms  of  this  valve  are  illustrated,  together 
with  a  longitudinal  sectional  view  of  the  valve  in  the 


Fig.  1. 

The  American  Balance  Valve. 

Single  Disc  Longitudinal  Section. 

steam  chest.  Experience  proves  this  balance  to  be 
a  very  successful  form  of  balance  valves.  This  is 
due  to  the  simplicity  of  construction,  positive  action 
and  very  large  area  of  balance.  The  beveled  ring 
is  self-adjusting — no  springs  being  required — hence 
not  liable  to  get  out  of  order. 

This  form  of  balance  may  be  applied  to  almost 
every  form  of  slide  valve. 

The  American  balance  valve  is  used  by  a  great 
many  railroads  in  this  country,  consequently  details 
of  its  construction  are  here  given,  beheving  they  will 


VALVES  197 

be  interesting  to  a  large  number  of  railroad  men.  It 
has  also  attracted  the  attention  of  foreign  builders 
and  is  now  in  use  upon  many  locomotives  in  foreign 
countries. 

The  claims  of  advantage  for  this  valve  are,  first  of 
all,  an  absolutely  steam-tight  joint,  not  only  when 
newly  fitted,  but  all  the  time.  Second,  greater  area  of 
balance.  The  formula  for  figuring  the  area  of  bal- 
ance differs  from  many  others,  and  yet  this  valve  will 
not  raise  from  its  seat  under  all  ordinary  conditions 
of  service.  It  should  be  explained  that  this  valve  is 
balanced  in  what  is  presumably  its  heaviest  position, 
and  with  the  steam  pressure  acting  on  the  circumfer- 
ence of  this  taper  ring,  it  will  be  observed  that  for  the 
valve  to  lift  it  is  necessary  to  force  the  cone  up  into 
this  taper  ring;  and  since  the  ring  is  held  by  the  steam 
chest  pressure  from  opening,  the  valve  cannot  lift 
without  first  overcoming  the  friction  of  the  beveled 
face,  besides  opening  the  ring  against  the  steam  chest 
pressure.  The  lighter  positions  of  the  valve,  where  a 
straight  wall  balance  would  allow  the  valve  to  go  off 
its  seat,  need  not  be  considered.  It  should  not,  how- 
ever, be  assumed  that  this  taper  will  crowd  the  valve 
down  on  its  seat,  which  would  appear  to  be  a  natural 
conclusion  to  draw,  from  its  manner  of  preventing  the 
valve  from  leaving  its  seat.  If  the  degree  of  taper 
was  made  great  enough — forty-five  degrees  or  greater 
— the  action  of  the  steam  chest  pressure  on  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  ring  would,  of  course,  wedge  it  in 
between  the  cone  and  the  chest  cover  and  exert  an 
enormous  pressure  on  the  valve.  In  fact  it  would  not 
work  satisfactorily  at  all;  the  friction  would  be  too 
great    This,  however,  is  not  the  case.    Experiments 


198  VALVES 

have  been  made  with  this  taper  from  nine  degreas  to 
twenty-four  dep;re(\s,  and  the  i)ropcr  degree  of  taper 
has  been  found  with  wliich  the  ring  is  certain  to  rise 
under  all  conditions,  and  yet  not  crowd  itself  against 
the  ui)i)er  bearing  more  than  necessary.  This  is 
demonstrated  b\'  the  fact  that  rings  have  been  reported 
to  have  run  190,000  miles  with  only  one  thirty-second 
of  an  inch  wear  off  their  face. 

This  form  of  balance  is  extremely  simple,  has  no 
delicate  parts,  is  little  likely  to  be  broken,  has  positive 
automatic  adjustment,  self-sui)i)orting  feature  of  the 
ring,  and  entire  absence  of  springs.  Its  cost  of  con- 
I  struction  is  low,  and  it  can  be  maintained  at  small 
expense.  It  might  be  stated  in  explanation  of  this, 
that  the  only  repair  necessary  is  to  put  on  a  new  ring 
when  the  old  one  has  worn  out  from  the  top  down- 
ward. As  the  new  rings  are  one  inch  deep  they  can 
easily  wear  three-eighths  of  an  inch  and  still  adjust 
themselves;  and  to  wear  a  ring  three-eighths  of  an 
inch,  assuming  that  it  is  made  of  proper  metal,  will,  it 
is  claimed,  require  from  four  to  eight  years  in  con- 
tinual service.  When  the  old  ring  is  taken  off  the 
cone  and  a  new  one  from  stock  placed  on  the  old  cone, 
the  balance  is  just  the  same  as  when  all  is  new.  This 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  since  the  steam  pressure 
on  the  circumference  of  the  ring  holds  it  firmly  against 
the  beveled  face  of  the  disc  or  cone  while  in  operation 
under  steam  (its  own  tension  holding  it  when  not 
under  steam),  there  is  absolutely  no  lateral  wear  on 
the  ring  or  disc;  hence,  a  new  ring  fits  an  old  disc  at 
any  future  time. 

Since  these  rings  are  all  lathe  work  (it  does  not 
require  more  than  twenty  minutes' hand  work  to  fasten 


YALVES  199 

OR  the  L-shaped  piece  for  covering  the  cut  of  the  ring) , 
it  will,  therefore,  readily  be  seen  that  the  expense  in 
taking  a  stock  ring  aiid  renewing  the  balance  is  small. 
It  would  appear  that  the  disadvantages^  of  other 
valves  are  removed  in  this  valve  by  the  taper  f  eatureof 
the  ring.  A  variation  of  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch 
in  the  diameter  of  a  ring  either  way  from  the  sizes 


Fir,.  2. 
Single  Disc  American  Balance  Valve. 

required  would  not  in  any  wise  interfere  with  the  serv- 
ice of  the  valve,  since  +he  ring  is  turned  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  smaller  than  its.  worldng  diameter. 

The  ring  is  expanded  over  the  cone  and  thus 
^ecei^"es  a  tension  which  makes  it  self-supporting 
when  not  under  steam;  the  steam  on  its  circumference 
supports  it  when  in  operation.    The  outside  rim  or 


200  YALVE8 

flange,  as  shown,  extending  outside  the  taper  ring,  is 
to  prevent  pieces  of  the  ring  from  falling  in  the  path  of 
the  valve  in  the  event  of  accident  to  the  ring. 

Several  forms  of  this  balance  are  used,  the  simple 
disc  (Figs.  1  and  2)  and  the  double  disc  (Fig.  3)  being 
more  fully  described. 

Single  "Disc"  American  Balanced  Valve. — ^The> 
single  disc  balance  should  always  be  used  where  chest 
room  will  permit  it,  as  one  ring  and  disc  is  simpler 
than  two,  but  it  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  form  the 
ring  and  cone  extend  beyond  the  sides  of  the  valve. 

R2ile. — For  length  of  steam  chest  for  single  bal- 
ance, add  the  extreme  travel  of  the  valve  to  the  outside 
diameter  of  disc,  and  to  this  sum  add  not  less  than 
one-half  inch  for  clearance — one-fourth  inch  at  each 
end  of  chest.  If  a  little  more  clearance  ia desired,  the 
rims  of  disc  may  be  cut  one-eighth  inch,  i.  e.,  just 
flattened  on  two  sides  in  line  of  valve  travel;  but  in  no 
case  are  they  to  be  cut  beyond  their  inside  diameter. 
If  sufficient  clearance  cannot  be  obtained  by  cutting 
the  rims  one-eighth  inch  each  side  in  line  of  valve 
travel,  then  double  balance  must  be  used. 

The  ring  must  be  protected  by  the  disc,  and  when 
figuring  outside  diameter  of  ring  one-fourth  inch  must 
be  added  for  the  joint  plate  and  the  ring  must  be  fig- 
ured when  expanded  on  the  cone  until  its  top  face  is 
flush  with  top  of  cone,  or  at  its  greatest  possible 
diameter. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  single  disc  balance  valve  with 
cone  and  ring  removed. 

Double  "Disc"  American  Balanced  Valve. — When 
the  steam  chest  is  too  short  to  leave  clearance  for  the 
outside  diameter  of  the  disc  or  cone  of  single  balance 


VALVES 


201 


at  extreme  travel  of  valve,  then  double  balance  is  used. 
If  the  yoke  fit  (or  box)  of  valve  is  large  enough,  two 
cones  are  cast  on  the  valve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  but  if 
the  yoke  fit  is  not  large  enough  to  cast  cones  on,  then 
two  discs  are  used.  If  the  distance  across  the  two 
discs,  when  they  are  side  by  side  on  top  of  valve,  is 
greater  than  width  of  steam  chest,  the  rims  on  each 
disc  may  be  cut  one-eighth  inch  at  center  of  valve 


Fig.  3. 
Double  Cone  American  Balance  Valve. 

thereby  drawing  the  discs  one-fourth  inch  closer 
together;  and  if  more  clearance  is  necessary,  the  rims 
may  also  be  cut  one-eighth  inch  at  ends  of  valve, 
giving  one-fourth  inch  more  or  a  total  of  one-half  inch. 
But  in  no  case  shall  the  rims  be  cut  more  than  one- 
eighth  inch,  or  to  their  inside  diameter. 

If  discs  thus  cut  will  not  clear  the  sides  of  chest,  less 
balance  must  be  used. 


L'02  VALVES 

Repair  of  These  Valves— Discs  Bearing  on  1  ^alve. — 

In  all  cases  where  ])ossible  the  height  adjustment 
should  be  made  by  lowering  the  chest  cover,  or  bearing 
plate,  but  when  chest  cover  cannot  be  lowered  the 
discs  may  be  raised.  When  it  is  found  necessary  to 
raise  the  disc  on  the  valve  longer  bolts  should  be  used 
and  the  liners  placed  between  the  disc  and  the  valve 
must  be  true,  and  large  enough  to  give  a  solid  bearing 
for  disc  on  the  valve.  If  found  necessary  to  raise  the 
disc  to  clear  the  top  of  valve  yoke,  the  same  rules  must 
be  observed.  The  bolts  which  fasten  the  disc  to  the 
valve  should  be  steam-tight  on  threads  and  steam- 
tight  under  the  heads,  a  coj)per  washer  being  used 
under  the  heads,  forming  a  bolt  lock.  The  interior  of 
each  disc  or  cone  is  relieved  to  the  exhaust  ca\  ity  of 
the  Talve,  as  shown  by  the  several  holes  in  Fig.  3. 

In  "cone"  balance,  holes  are  drilled  through  the  top 
of  valve,  but  in  "disc"  balance  the  relief  holes  pass 
through  the  bolts,  one-fourth  inch  hole  being  drilled 
through  each  bolt,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

The  Single  "Cone"  Balanced  Valve  must  be  cast 
flangeless  if  a  valve  joke  extending  all  around  the 
valve  (as  in  locomotives)  is  used,  but  need  not  be 
flangeless,  when  made  for  center  rod  to  drive  the  valve 
(as  in  stationary  engines).  In  case  of  the  locomotive 
yoke,  it  is  recommended  that  the  ^oke  be  carried  on 
the  steam  chest  at  the  ends  of  the  valve.  Where  old 
chests  have  rubbing  strips  wide  enough  they  can  be 
planed  on  top  and  the  yoke  allowed  to  ride  on  them, 
and  in  new  work  this  can  be  done  cheaper  than  to  put 
on  a  front  carrying  horn  and  is  more  efficient  than  to 
support  the  yoke  on  the  valve  stem  packing  and  the 
valve  itself.    A  valve  need  not  be  flangeless  to  thus 


VALVES  203 

support  the  yoke;  it  can  be  carried  with  any  valve, 
and  it  insures  the  free  upward  mo\"ement  of  the  valve 
at  all  times,  which  is  very  essential  in  obtaining  the 
best  results. 

The  outside  rim  on  disc  or  cone  is  merely  a  saf& 
guard  to  the  ring  in  case  of  accident — preventing 
broken  portions  of  the  ring  from  getting  under  the 
valve — it  performs  no  other  duty.  The  required 
inside  diameter  of  this  rim  must  allow  the  ring  to 
be  expanded  on  the  cone  until  the  top  face  of  the 
ring  is  flush  with  top  of  cone  and  still  clear  the  one- 
eighth  inch  joint  plate  on  the  outside  of  ring.  In 
single  balance  the  rims  may  be  cut  one-eighth  inch 
front  and  back,  giving  one-fourth  inch  more 
clearance,  when  the  disc  runs  too  close  to  steam 
chest  at  full  travel  of  valve. 

Proper  Height  Adjustment. — When  the  valve  is  in 
position  and  the  chest  cover  has  been  screwed  down 
there  should  be  one-eighth  inch  between  the  face  of 
the  bearing  plate  (sometimes  called  balance  plate)  and 
the  top  of  disc  or  cone.  The  rings  are  bored  for  this 
position  and  in  this  position  have  their  proper  tension. 
This  allows  the  valve  to  lift  off  its  seat  one-eighth 
inch,  which  it  will  do  as  soon  as  steam  is  shut  off 
while  the  engine  is  in  motion  or  drifting,  provided  it  is 
not  held  down  by  the  valve  yoke.  The  valve  yoke 
must  not  interfere  with  this  upward  movement  of  the 
valve. 

Proper  Tendon  on  Ring. — Rings  are  all  bored 
smaller  than  the  diameter  at  which  they  are  to  work; 
therefore,  when  a  ring  is  set  on  its  proper  cone  it  will 
stand  higher  than  its  working  position.  The  face  of 
bearing  plate  must  not  be  closer  than  one-eighth  inch 


204  VALVES 

to  top  of  cone  after  chest  cover  has  been  screwed  down. 
In  placing  the  cover  in  this  position  the  ring  is 
expanded  over  the  cone  until  its  inside  diameter  at 
bottom  is  the  proi)cr  balancing  diameter. 

Owing  to  the  natural  elasticity  of  the  ring  and  its 
expansion  over  the  cone,  a  tension  is  placed  on  the 
ring,  the  action  of  which  is  (the  same  as  the  steam 
pressure)  to  close  the  ring  on  the  cone,  which  neces- 
sarily causes  the  ring  to  move  upwards.  The  ring  is, 
therefore,  self-supporting  and  self-adjusting.  All 
rings  are  interchangeable  on  discs  and  cones  of 
respective  sizes,  whether  standard  or  special. 

American  balances  are  known  under  the  following 
heads: 

Single  Disc  Balance — one  ring  and  one  disc. 

Double  Disc  Balance — two  rings  and  two  discs. 

Single  Cone  Balance — one  ring,  with  cone  cast  on 
the  valve. 

Double  Cone  Balance — two  rings,  with  cones  cast 
on  the  valve. 

Necessary  Cylinder  Relief. — The  valve  should 
always  be  free  to  lift  one-eighth  inch  off  its  seat,  to 
allow  the  free  passage  of  air  from  one  end  of  the  cylin- 
der to  the  other  between  valve  and  valve  seat  when  the 
engine  is  running  without  steam.  The  tops  of  all 
American  balance  discs,  or  cones,  show  a  pohsh, 
giving  positive  evidence  of  their  contact  with  the 
bearing  plate  or  cover,  and  that  they,  therefore,  do 
float.  The  explanation  is:  At  the  first  stroke  of  the 
piston,  after  the  engine  has  been  shut  off,  air  is  com- 
pressed in  one  end  of  the  cylinder  while  the  valve  is 
traveling  a  distance  equal  to  its  outside  lap;  at  an 
early  stage  of  this  compression  the  valve  is  throwo 


TALVES  205 

off  its  seat  and  the  escaping  air  rushes  under  the 
valve  into  the  opposite  end  of  the  cyhnder  to  reheve 
the  suction  which  is  taking  place  in  that  end;  this 
operation  is  repeated  so  rapidly  that  the  valve  is  kept 
floating  until  a  slow  speed  has  been  reached. 

The  Formula  of  Balance  Used  on  the  American 
balance  valve  is  as  follows: 

(1)  Area  of  balance  for  plain  valves. — Area  of  one 
steam  port,  two  bridges,  and  the  exhaust  port,  plus 
eight  per  cent,  if  for  siiigle  balance  and  plus  fifteen 
per  cent,  if  double  balance. 

(2)  For  Allen  valves  use  the  same  formula  as  above; 
then  from  the  area  derived  subtract  the  area  of  one 
side  of  the  Allen  port. 


THE   PISTON   VALVE   FOR   LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  advantages  gained  by  large  ports  and 
diminished  frictional  resistance  supposed  to  be 
co-relative  with  the  piston  valve  have  been  a  sub- 
ject of  grave  dissension  among  practical 
locomotive  designers. 

The  piston  valve  is  an  old  device,  yet  of  rare  use 
on  the  locomotive  until  recent  years.  The  large 
and  successful  introduction  of  the  Vauclain  type 


Fio    1. 
Piston  Valve  for  Baldwin  Four-Cylinder  Compound  Locomotives 

of  compound  locomotives,  employing  a  double  pis- 
ton valve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  undoubtedly  ac- 
countable for  the  much  exjjerimenting  now  going 
on  and  the  many  styles — too  numerous  to  mention 
— of  piston  valves  in  use  in  a  limited  number  of 
locomotives  on  almost  every  railroad  system  of 
any  size  in  this  country. 

It  was  for  some  time  erroneously  supposed  that 
a  piston  valve  was  a  perfectly  balanced  valve ;  this, 
however,  has  been  proven  not  to  be  so,  as  the  un- 
balanced jDortion  is  largely  dependent  upon  tha 

(206) 


VALVES 


207 


width  of  the  packing  rings.  Therefore  it  is  not 
surprising  to  find  that  the  principal  difference  be- 
tween the  various  forms  of  locomotive  piston 
valves  lies  in  the  varied  designs  of  packing  rings. 


Fig.  2. 
Locomotive  Piston  Valve. 


The  American  piston  valve  with  wide  packing 
rings  wedged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
their  great  outward  pressure  against  the  walls  of 
the  valve  chamber,  is  shown  in  Fig.  2,  as  it  has 
been  applied  to  several  locomotives  of  modern 
and  complete  design. 

The  Piston  Valve — To  open  the  admission  ports, 
to  allow  steam  to  enter  the  cylinder,  close  the 
port  or  cut  oS  the  steam  at  the  desired  point  of 
stroke,  allowing  the  expansive  force  of  the  steam 
to  push  the  piston  to  the  end  of  its  stroke,  open- 
ing the  port  to  allow  the  steam  to  escape  through 
the  exhaust  passage,  closing  the  port  in  time  to 
produce  sufficient  compression  to  promote  econ- 
omy in  the  use  of  steam  generated  in  the  boiler, 
is  the  function  of  the  valve,  whether  plain,  bal- 
anced or  of  the  piston  type.    To  secure  the  nee- 


208 


VALVES 


essary  compression  the  valve  should  close  the 
port  before  all  the  exhaust  steam  has  escaped  to 
the  exhaust,  and  the  steam  thus  confined  in  the 
cylinder  is,  or  should  be,  compressed  to  fill  the 
space  between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  head 
and  the  volume  of  the  port  to  as  near  the  initial 
pressure  or  the  pressure  of  steam  that  is  admitted 
to  the  cylinder  when  the  port  is  again  opened  for 
admission.  To  illustrate  the  diii'erence  in  the 
slide  and  piston  valves  we  will  refer  to  Fig.  3, 


Fig  3. 
Balanced  Slide  Valve. 


which  shows  the  slide  valve  with  the  front  port 
slightly  opened  and  the  marks  on  the  valve  rod 
made  with  a  tram  from  a  fixed  point  on  the  cyl- 
inder casting  that  indicate  to  the  valve  setter  the 
position  of  the  valve  at  all  times  after  the  cover 
has  been  placed  on  the  steam  chest,  in  which  1 
and  2  represent  the  admission  edges  of  the  valve, 
and  3  and  4  represent  the  exhaust  edges.  Fig.  4 
represents  a  piston  valve  with  outside  admission, 
and  the  rings  marked  1,  2,  3  and  4  still  represent 
the  same  edges  of  the  valve  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
Fig.  5  shows  a  piston  valve  with  inside  or  inter- 
nal admission,  which  changes  the  position  of  the 
edges  of  the  valve,  also  the  direction  of  its  move- 


YALYES 


209 


ment,  which  is  directly  opposite  that  of  the  slide 
or  piston  valve  with  outside  admission,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  3  and  4.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
marks  on  the  valve  rod  are  also  changed  in  their 


Fig.  4. 
Piston  Valve  outside  admission. 


position.  The  inside  edges  of  rings  3  and  4  are 
the  admission  edges  of  the  valve  and  the  outside 
edges  of  rings  1  and  2  are  the  exhaust  edges  of 
the  valve.  The  valve  in  Fig.  5  could  be  given 
the  same  movement  as  in  Figs.  3  and  4  by  chang- 


FiG.  5. 

Piston  Valve  Internal  admission  showing  marks  on  valve  stem  to  Indicate 

position  of  valve.    Note  the  difference  in  position  with 

outside  and  internal  admission. 

ing  the  position  of  the  eccentrics  on  the  shaft 
and  still  use  the  indirect  rocker  or  motion.  But 
it  is  usually  more  convenient  to  employ  a  rocker 
with  the  valve  arm  turned  down  opposite  the 


210 


VALVES 


link  arm.  This  leaves  the  eccentrics  in  the  same 
position  as  they  were  with  the  outside  admission 
valve  and  indirect  rocker,  but  gives  a  direct 
motion  to  the  valve  with  internal  admission  as 
the  valve  rod  and  the  eccentric  rod  are  both 
traveling  in  the  same  direction,  then  we  have  a 
direct  motion  valve  gear  for  this  style  of  piston 


Fig.  6. 

Showing  piston  valve  and  cylinder  by-pass  valves  placed  on  top  of 

steam  chest  relief  valves  in  cylinder  heads. 

valve.  Fig.  6  shows  a  piston  valve  and  cylinder, 
internal  admission.  The  arrows  indicate  the 
passage  of  the  steam.  Fig  7  shows  a  valve  cham- 
ber bushing  for  a  piston  valve.  The  longitudinal 
strips  or  bridges  are  not  to  make  separate  ports, 
as  is  sometimes  inferred.  Their  purpose  is  to 
strengthen  the  bushing  and  prevent  the  packing 
rings  in  the  valve  from  springing  past  the  edges 
of  the  ports  while  traveling  over  them.    The 


VALVES  211 

bridges  in  the  lower  side  of  the  bushing  are  wider 
than  the  others  to  insure  sufficient  bearing  where 
the  ends  of  the  rings  are  held  in  jDlace  by  dowels 
or  stops  that  are  placed  in  the  packing  ring 
groove  to  prevent  the  rings  from  turning.  When 
the  average  size  cylinder  used  on  the  majority  of 
roads  did  not  exceed  18  or  19  inches  and  the 
boiler  pressure  averaged  160  pounds,  the  balance 
D-valve  was  satisfactory.  The  notches  in  the 
quadrant  were  usually  made  to  engage  the  latch 
of  the  reverse  lever  in  the  6,  9,  12,  15,  18  and  21- 


aoDDoa 

Fig.  7. 
Piston  Valve  Bushing. 

inch  cut-offs.  In  order  to  give  the  engineer  an 
opportunity  to  obtain  a  finer  adjustment  of  the 
cut-off,  the  fine  notched  quadrant  was  applied  to 
many  of  the  simple  engines,  as  with  the  old  style 
quadrant  the  engine  was  often  worked  in  the  9 
or  12-inch  notch  because  she  would  not  make  the 
time  working  the  6  or  9-inch,  and  the  9  and  12- 
inch  was  as  much  too  heavy  as  the  others  were 
too  light.  The  notches  allowed  the  engineer  to 
obtain  the  desired  cut-off  and  regulate  it  to  effect 
economy.  This  was  appreciated  by  enginemen 
until  the  cylinders  increased  in  size  from  19  to 


212  VALVES 

22  inches  in  diameter,  'svliich  required  larger  ad- 
mission and  exhaust  ports,  also  a  larger  valve. 
This,  with  the  increased  boiler  pressure  to  190  or 
200  pounds,  made  the  valve  hard  to  handle  when 
the  throttle  was  well  opened,  and  necessitated 
the  partly  closing  of  the  throttle  when  it  was  de- 
sired to  change  the  position  of  the  lever  on  the 
quadrant.  When  the  valve  was  running  rather 
light  on  the  lubrication,  if  the  latch  was  disen- 
gaged sometimes  the  engineer  and  the  lever 
would  both  go  into  the  corner.  Then  the  fine 
notches  were  not  used  as  intended,  and  many  a 
fireman  can  testify  that  he  has  shoveled  extra 
coal  into  the  firebox  for  the  reason  that  the 
throttle  would  be  eased  off  and  longer  cut-off 
used  than  necessary  because  it  was  too  hard 
work  to  hook  the  lever  back  and  the  speed 
and  power  were  regulated  by  the  throttle.  To 
overcome  this  and  make  the  engine  easy  to 
handle,  the  piston  valve  was  applied  to  the  large 
modern  engines,  and  was  expected  to  enable  the 
engineer  to  manipulate  the  lever  with  ease  as 
well  as  to  reduce  the  cost  of  maintenance  or  re- 
pairs. The  fact  that  they  will  run  from  one  to 
two  years  and  then  show  very  little  wear  on  the 
rings  and  bushings,  that  there  are  no  leaky  steam 
chest  joints  for  steam  to  escape  and  obscure  the 
vision  of  the  engineer,  no  valve  seats  to  plane,  or 
balance  plates,  strips,  or  rings  for  adjustment, 
and  very  little  trouble  with  the  valve  rod  pack- 
ing, as  it  is  exposed  only  to  the  pressure  of  the 
exhaust  steam,  and  the  drops  of  valve  oil  that 
are  fed  through  the  sight  feed  glasses  of  the 


VALVES  213 

lubricator  seem  to  be  more  effective  with  the 
piston  valve  than  with  the  slide  valve  in  case 
either  becomes  dry,  are  all  in  favor  of  the  piston 
valve. 

The  report  of  face  valves  is  not  entered  on  the 
work-book  as  frequently  as  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  piston  valve.  We  are  all  familiar 
with  the  manner  of  obtaining  the  marks  on  the 
valve  stem  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  By  placing  a> 
piece  of  tin  in  the  port  and  pushing  the  edge  of 
the  valve  up  to  it,  then  scribing  the  mark  on  the 
stem,  with  a  piston  valve  internal  admission  it 
would  be  impossible  to  locate  the  position  of  the 
valve  in  that  manner.  Therefore,  they  are 
usually  provided  with  a  hole  drilled  into  the 
valve  chamber  at  each  end  that  registers  with 
the  admission  ports  and  plugs  are  screwed  into- 
the  peep-holes  to  prevent  steam  escaping.  When 
it  is  desired  to  mark  the  stems  the  plugs  are  re- 
moved and  a  piece  of  small  copper  pipe  with  a 
piece  of  wick  inserted  in  the  end,  that  forms  a 
very  convenient  torch  for  this  purpose,  is  inserted 
in  the  hole  and  the  edges  of  the  packing  rings 
may  be  easily  seen  and  the  position  of  the  valve 
located  when  the  edges  of  the  rings  are  opposite 
the  edges  of  the  ports,  and  the  stems  are  marked 
accordingly  with  the  same  accuracy  as  they  were 
with  the  strip  of  tin  and  the  cover  removed  on 
the  D-valve.  In  case  of  disconnecting  on  one 
side,  the  ports  may  be  covered  by  placing  the 
valve  central  on  its  seat,  which  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  steam  ceasing  to  flow  from  the  cyl- 
inder cocks  on  the  disabled  side  when  the  throttle 


214  VALVES 

is  opened  or  by  placing  the  rocker  arm  m  a  ver- 
tical position.  As  for  the  engine  tearing  herself 
to  pieces  when  descending  a  grade  with  the 
throttle  closed  and  the  lever  full  gear,  it  is  not 
considered  good  practice  to  drift  at  high  speed 
with  the  throttle  closed  and  lever  in  full  gear 
forward.  It  is  better  to  leave  the  throttle 
slightly  opened  or  cracked  enough  to  admit  suffi- 
cient steam  to  the  cylinders  to  hold  the  air  valves 
shut,  thus  preventing  the  pistons  from  forming  a 
partial  vacuum  in  the  cylinders  that  will  cause 
the  hot  gases  and  cinders  to  be  drawn  into  them. 
This  is  the  reason  for  not  tightly  closing  the 
throttle.  The  reason  that  the  lever  should  be 
notched  well  up  in  the  quadrant  will  appear 
clear  from  the  following  example:  Take  an  en- 
gine with  a  60-inch  driving  wheel,  including  tire. 
This  sized  wheel  will  make  836  revolutions  per 
mile.  The  valve  will  weigh  possibly  175  pounds. 
If  the  engine  is  equipped  with  an  intermediate . 
rocker  or  arm,  we  have  another  hundred  pounds, 
©eglecting  the  weight  of  the  rocker  and  friction 
we  have  275  pounds  and  a  valve  travel  of  5| 
inches.  If  we  multiply  the  travel  of  the  valve  by 
the  number  of  revolutions  we  have  275  multi- 
plied by  5|  inches  equals  1,932  inches  or  161  feet. 
If  running  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  per  minute 
with  the  lever  in  full  gear  forward,  the  forward 
motion  eccentric  rod  is  nearly  opposite  the  link 
block  and  the  work  of  pushing  and  pulling  the 
weight  of  275  pounds  a  distance  of  161  feet  and 
stopping  and  starting  it  672  times  in  a  minute  is 
performed    by   the    forward    motion    eccentric. 


VALVES  215 

When  we  stop  to  think  this  over  is  it  strange 
that  the  engine  seemed  as  if  she  was  pounding 
herself  to  pieces,  and  does  it  not  look  reasonable 
that  this  practice  will  result  in  excessive  wear  on 
the  eccentric  straps  and  hot  eccentrics?  If  the 
]ever  is  notched  up  at  a  shorter  cut-off,  instead  of 
the  forward  motion  eccentric  doing  all  the  work 
it  is  relieved  of  a  part  of  it  in  proportion  to  the 
position  of  the  link  in  the  link  block  and  the 
back  motion  eccentric  will  receive  a  part  of  the 
load.  When  j'ou  are  going  down  a  hill  leave  the 
throttle  cracked  and  drop  the  lever  down  until  it 
begins  to  pull,  then  notch  it  back  to  where  it  will 
feel  easy  and  let  it  remain  there  until  the  speed 
is  reduced.  As  the  speed  decreases  the  lever  can 
be  moved  farther  forward  and  will  not  pound. 

As  the  piston  valve  can  not  lift  from  its  seat  as 
the  D-valve  can  when  compression  is  greater  than 
the  initial  pressure,  provision  is  made  to  relieve 
the  strain  and  prevent  the  fracture  of  cylinder 
heads  by  placing  compression  or  relief  valves  in 
the  cylinder  heads  adjusting  the  springs  to  the 
desired  pressure.  When  the  pressure  exceeds  the 
resistance  of  the  spring  the  valve  is  unseated  and 
the  pressure  relieved.  Fig.  6  shows  relief  valves 
in  cylinder  heads,  also  a  style  of  by-pass  valve 
that  opens  when  the  compression  exceeds  the 
pressure  that  is  admitted  into  the  valve  chamber 
between  the  pistons  of  the  piston  valve, 
when  the  compression  opens  the  valve,  in- 
stead of  the  steam  escaping  to  the  atmo- 
sphere it  flows  through  the  passage  into  the 
valve  chamber  and  effects  that  much  economy. 


216  VALVES 

Various  styles  of  by-pass  valves  are  used  on 
piston  valve  simple  and  compound  engines. 
Compound  locomotives  may  have  two,  threo  or 
four  cylinders  with  either  slide  or  piston  valves. 
The  necessity  for  relief  and  by-pass  valves  of 
adequate  proportions,  on  piston  valve  engines, 
should  be  appreciated.  While  the  style  of  the 
valve  varies,  some  being  hollow  and  others  solid, 
the  action  of  the  valve  is  the  same  as  above 
described. 

The  Link  Motion  is  the  device  to  regulate  and 
reverse  the  motion  of  the  valve,  Tliere  are  many 
designs  of  Link  Motions,  but  the  ones  mostly  used 
may  be  reduced  to  a  very  small  number.  The 
Stephenson  Link  Motion  is  the  one  most  commonly 
used  in  America  and  it  has  remained  practically 
unchanged  since  its  invention.  It  is  acknowledged 
to  be  one  of  the  best  reversible  valve  gears  in 
existence  at  the  present  day. 

An  outline  illustration  showing  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  Stephenson  Link  Motion  is  shown  in 
Fig  8,  which  illustrates  tlie  usual  form  of  direct 
motion  as  used  on  American  locomotives. 

The  forward  and  back-up  eccentrics  are  keyed 
to  the  main  axle,  their  centers  being  F  and  B 
respectively.  Around  the  eccentrics  are  the  ec- 
centric straps,  which  in  turn  are  bolted  to  the 
eccentric  rods ;  the  foi'ward  rod  is  attached  to  the 
top  of  the  link,  and  the  back-up  eccentric  rod  to 
the  bottom  of  the  link.  The  valve  is  connected  to 
the  top  arm  of  the  rocker  by  the  valve  rod;  the 
lower  rocker  arm  is  attached  to  the  link  block, 
which  slides  freely  in  the  link.  In  the  middle  of 
the  link  is  the  so-called  saddle,  also  fonning  the 
pin  supporting  the  link  and  eccentric  rods;  the 


•**^ 


217 


218  VALVES. 

saddle  pin  is  connected  witli  the  lower  end  of  the 
link  hanger,  while  the  upper  end  of  the  hanger  is 
fastened  to  one  ann  of  the  reversing  or  tumbling 
shaft.  The  other  arm  of  the  reverse  shaft  is  con- 
nected to  the  reverse  lever  by  the  reversing  or 
reach  rod.  In  the  illustration  the  link  is  shown 
to  l)e  in  full  forward  gear,  thereby  allowing  the 
forward  eccentric  F  to  control  the  valve  motion. 
Moving  the  reverse  lever,  and  by  it  the  reversing 
rod,  so  that  the  pin  of  the  back-up  eccentric  rod  is 
on  a  line  with  the  lower  rocker  arm,  will  let  the 
back-up  eccentric  govern  the  valve  motion.  By 
placing  the  reverse  lever  in  any  jDosition  be- 
tween full  gear  and  the  center  notch  of  the  quadr 
rant,  the  predominant  influence  on  the  motion  of 
the  valve  of  one  eccentric  over  the  other  can  be 
regulated  at  will.  The  valve  travel  at  the  same 
time  will  be  reduced  as  the  reverse  lever  is  moved 
toward  the  central  position  on  the  quadrant. 

The  distinguishing  difference  between  an  In- 
direct and  a  direct  valve  motion  is  at  times  con- 
fusing. For  the  Stephenson  motion  the  rocker 
ann  is  the  guide  to  a  proper  classification.  The 
usual  form  met  with  in  America  is  the  indirect; 
that  is,  the  foi^ward  motion  of  the  link  is  reversed 
through  the  lower  and  upi^er  anns  of  the  rocker^ 
thus  imparting  a  backward  motion  tO'  the  valve. 
If,  however,  the  twO'  arms  of  the  rocker  are  both 
extending  upward  or  downward  the  motion  would 
be  direct.  This  fonn  is  usually  met  with  in  eases 
of  engines  having  piston  valves,  when  the  steam 
ports  are  so  arranged  that  the  engine  takes  steam 
from  the  space  between  the  two  rings  or  ends  of 
the  valve. 

There  are  many  things  to  be  considered  in  the 
laying  out  of  a  Stephenson  Link  Motion.    Those 


YALTES.  219 

which  influence  the  valve's  travel  are  angularity 
of  the  main  rod,  the  vertical  distance  between  the 
center  lines  of  the  cylinder  and  the  driving  wheels, 
the  back-set  of  the  saddle-pin,  the  relative  position 
of  the  reverse  shaft  and  the  rocker,  the  actual 
length  of  the  eccentric  blades  and  the  lengths  of 
the  reverse  shaft  anns. 

The  angularity  of  the  main  rod  is  noticed  in 
the  fact  that  the  crank  pin  will  travel  less  than, 
the  distance  from  front  dead  center  to  tlie  quarter 
position  when  the  crosshead  pin  is  traveling  from 
front  center  to  middle  stroke  position.  At  the 
same  time  the  crank  pin  will  travel  more  than 
the  distance  from  quarter  toi  back  center  posi- 
tion while  the  crosshead  pin  is  traveling  from 
middle  stroke  position  to  back  center  position. 
This  inequality  of  travel  is  greater  as  the  length 
of  the  main  rod  is  reduced.  Its  effect  is  to  retard 
the  points  of  cut-off  and  release  in  the  front  end 
of  the  cylinder  of  an  engine  with  indirect  valve 
motion,  and  to  hasten  these  events  in  the  back  end. 
It  at  the  same  time  increases  the  lead  in  the  front 
end  and  decreases  it  ii#the  back  end. 

The  ang-ular  vibration,  or  the  crossing  of  the 
eccentric  rods  as  the  eccentrics  are  rotated  gives 
the  same  effect  on  the  valve  as  the  angularity  of 
the  main  rod. 

In  this  discussion  an  indirect  motion  only  will 
be  considered  and  at  the  same  time  all  state- 
ments will  refer  to  a  slide  valve  having,  as  is 
usual,  the  steam  admitted  by  the  outside  edges. 
For  a  direct  valve  motion  or  for  an  inside  ad- 
mission valve  the  proper  corrections  will  have  to 
be  made.  The  locating  of  the  eccentric  blade 
pins  back  of  the  center  line  of  the  link  arc  has 
directly  opposite  effects  upon  the  valve  than  the 


220  VALVES 

angularitj^  of  the  main  rod  and  the  angular  vibra- 
tion of  the  eccentric  blades.  A  correction  of  the 
effects  produced  by  the  angularity  of  the  main 
rod  and  the  anguhir  vibration  of  the  eccentric 
blades  could  be  obtained  by  placing  the  saddle 
pin  ahead  of  the  link  arc.  The  correction  of  the 
errors  in  the  valve  motion  due  to  the  eccentric 
blade  i>in  being  placed  back  of  the  link  arc  center 
is  obtained  by  placing  the  saddle  pin  back  of  the 
link  arc  center.  The  final  offset  of  the  saddle  pin 
is  the  resultant  of  these  two  correcting  meas- 
ures. 

\"ery  few  locomotives  are  built  with  the  center 
line  of  the  cylinder  passing  through  the  center 
lines  of  the  driving  wheels.  The  effect  of  this 
is  to  introduce  an  irregularity  in  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  the  angularity  of  the  main  rod.  The 
effect  produced  in  tlie  foi'ward  stroke  of  the  en- 
gine will  be  different  from  that  produced  in 
the  back  stroke,  but  within  reasonable  limits  this 
will  not  give  bad  results.  If,  however,  the  ver- 
tical distance  between  the  center  lines  of  the 
cylinder  and  the  axles  be^mes  too  great,  the  only 
remedy  is  to  incline  the  cylinder  so  that  its  center 
line  will  pass  through  the  center  line  of  the  main 
driver. 

The  points  so  far  considered  refer  only  to  the 
matter  of  obtaining  equal  cut-offs.  As  mentioned,, 
this  is  finally  obtained  by  locating  the  saddle  pin 
so  as  to  compensate  for  all  the  other  irregulari- 
ties. This  pin  is  usually  located  by  actual  trial, 
either  on  the  engine  by  the  use  of  a  slip  saddle  or 
on  a  full-sized  valve  motion  model. 

The  locating  of  the  tumbling  or  reverse  shaft 
and  the  length  of  tlie  link  hanger  are  details  which 
affect  the  lead.     These  two  items  are  ones  which 


221 


222  VALVES. 

have  to  be  investigated  on  the  drawing  board,  the 
aim  of  the  design  being  to  obtain  equal  lead. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  points  to  be  con- 
sidered in  setting  the  valves  of  an  engine  with 
tlie  Stephenson  Link  Motion.  After  finding  the 
dead  centers  and  marking  the  port  marks  on  the 
valve  stem,  the  first  step  is  the  eciualization  of 
the  cut-offs  and  the  lead.  It  must  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  both  these  items  cannot  be  perfect  at 
the  same  time.  If  one  is  equalized  all  around, 
the  other  is  not.  Usually  for  engines  in  road 
sen-ice  the  back  gear  is  sacrificed  to  help  the  for- 
ward gear. 

To  equalize  the  valve  events  for  the  different 
strols^s,  the  eccentric  blades  are  lengthened  or 
shortened.  Raising  or  lowering  the  link  or  the 
link  block  is  done  to  equalize  the  two  sides  of  an 
engine.  To  alter  the  amount  of  le^d,  the  eccen- 
tric is  shifted  on  the  axle.  One  of  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Stephenson  Motion  is  that  the  lead 
increases  as  the  cut-off  is  decreased.  By  some 
this  is  claimed  to  be  an  advantage  and  by  others 
a  detriment  to  good  steam  distribution.  However, 
in  setting  valves  the  general  practice  is  to  make 
the  lead  a  certain  desired  amount  for  the  ordinary^ 
running  conditions  and  cut-offs,  and  sacrifice,  if 
necessary,  the  good  motion  under  the  extreme 
conditions. 

The  Allan  Link  Motion  was  invented  and  pat- 
ented many  years  ago  by  Alexander  Allan,  of 
England.  Its  a])plication  to  some  locomotives  of 
a  well-known  American  railway  is  illustrated  in 
outline  in  Fig.  9.  This  is  of  tlie  fonu  known 
as  Straight  Link  ^Nfotion,  where  all  the  locations 
of  the  link  block  lie  in  the  same  straight  line. 
Link  motions  of  this  form  give  a  practically  con- 


224  VALVES. 

stant  lead  when  well  designed  and  it  is  claimed 
that  "the  slip  of  the  link"  is  greatly  reduced. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  a  diagram  of  the  Walschaert 
Link  Motion.  No  eccentrics  are  used  in  this 
form,  but  an  arm  on  the  main  crank  jjin 
gives  the  valve  pait  of  its  motion.  The  link  ro- 
tates about  a  fixed  axis,  the  radius  of  its  arc 
equaling  the  length  of  the  radius  rod.  This  rod 
is  raised  or  lowered  by  the  arms  of  a  reversing 
shaft,  from  one  full  gear  position  to  the  other. 
It  is  evident  from  the  diagram  that  the  foi'ward 
is  an  indirect,  while  the  backward  is  a  direct 
valve  motion.  The  cross-head  motion  is  connected 
to  the  eccentric  motion  through  the  combination 
lever,  and  by  this  means  the  valve  is  enabled  to 
maintain  both  a  constant  lap  and  lead.  This  mo- 
tion is  receiving  considerable  attention  and  there 
are  many  applications  of  it  being  made. 

The  Joy  valve  gear,  like  the  Walschaert,  also 
dispenses  with  eccentrics  and  gives  motion  to  the 
valve  from  the  connecting  rods  through  a  system 
of  levers.  Some  of  the  advantages  claimed  for 
this  valve  gear  are:  That  the  cut-off  and  the 
lead  are  exactly  equal  in  both  ends  of  the  cylinder, 
and  remain  so  for  all  grades  of  expansion ;  that 
the  motion  admits  of  prompt  cut-oft'  and  exhaust 
release,  while  it  moves  the  valve  slowly  during 
the  expanding  and  exhausting  periods;  that  its 
construction  is  simpler  and  it  is  easier  of  main- 
tenance. Its  application  to  an  outside  connected 
locomotive  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

The  Stevens  Valve  Gear  as  used  somewhat  ex- 
tensively by  a  prominent  Pacific  Coast  railway,  is 
shown  diagrammatically  in  Fig.  12.  But  one  ec- 
centric is  used  to  operate  the  valve;  the  opening 
of  the  ports  being  controlled  by  the  eccentric^ 


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226 


VALVES.  227 

while  tlie  lap  and  lead  are  derived  from  the  cross- 
head  motion.  The  valve  opens  sharply  for  ad- 
mission until  the  port  is  wide  open,  then  remains 
almost  stationary  and  finally  closes  again  rapidly. 
The  reversing  and  adjustment  of  the  cut-off  are 
obtained  by  moving  the  block  in  the  curved  link, 
which  is  pivoted  on  a  fixed  center,  about  which  it 
is  make  to  oscillate  by  means  of  a  single  eccentric 
rod.  This  gear  is  very  similar  in  detail  to  the 
Walschaert,  the  only  marked  difference  being  the 
use  of  two  valves  in  each  chest. 


SPECIAL  VALVE  GEARS. 

GOOCH  VALVE  MOTION,  ALLAN  VALVE  MOTION,  HACK- 
WORTH  VALVE  MOTION,  JOY  MODIFICATION,  WAL- 
SCHAERT  VALVE  MOTION,  HELMHOLTZ  MODIFICA- 
TION, YOUNG  VALVE  ARRANGEMENT,  BAKER  VALVE 
GEAR,  SOUTHERN  VALVE  GEAR. 


In  addition  to  the  most  frequently  used  types  of 
valves  used  on  locomotives  mentioned  elsewhere 
the  following  description  of  special  valve  gears^ 
presented  to  the  American  Railway  Master  Me- 
chanics' Association,  by  an  authority  on  the  sub- 
ject,* will  be  found  interesting  and  instructive 
particularly  as  one  of  the  gears  described  (the 
Walschaert)  after  lying  dormant  for  more  than 
half  a  century  is  coming  into  use  in  America. 

As  several  gears  in  use  on  locomotives  are  deri- 
vations from  others  not  suitable  for  locomotives, 
it  may  in  a  few  cases  be  of  advantage  to  go  back 
to  the  origin  from  which  they  are  developed,  and 
others  referred  to  as  comparisons  in  being  ap- 
plicable but  which  do  not  possess  sufficient  advan- 
tages for  extended  adoption. 

Gooch  Valve  Motion. — Among  the  latter  class 
may  be  mentioned  the  Gooch,  or  stationary  link 
motion,  which  might  be  said  to  be  the  opposite  of 

*Mr.  C.  J.  Mellin. 

(229) 


230 


VALVE 


Stephenson  motion,  in  that  the  valve  rod  or  link 
block  is  raised  and  lowered  in  reversing  the  en- 
gine, instead  of  the  link  in  the  latter.  It  is  oper- 
ated with  two  eccentrics  set  in  the  same  relation  to 
the  crank  as  in  Stephenson's  gear,  and  the  link  is 
curved  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  length  of  the  valve 
rod  or  radius  bar  and  turned  with  its  convex  side 
to  the  axle  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.    This  motion  gives 


FIG.  I 
GOOCH  VALVE  MOTION. 


a  constant  lead  and  has  otherwise  no  advantage 
over  the  Stephenson  gear,  except,  possibly,  that 
the  link  block  and  the  radius  bar  are  lighter  to  lift 
in  reversing  than  the  link;  but  it  presents  an  ob- 
jectionable feature  in  that  the  sweep  of  the  radius 
bar  in  its  raising  and  lowering  is  obstructed  by 
the  front  driving  axle  when  the  main  connection  is 
made  to  the  second  or  third  pair  of  wheels,  and  is 
probably  the  principal  reason  why  the  Gooch  gear 
has  been  in  little  use  and  is  now  practically  aban- 
doned altogether  in  locomotive  service. 

Allan  Valve  Motion. — The  Allan  motion  (Fig. 
2)  may  be  said  to  be  a  combination  of  the  Stephen- 
son and  Gooch  gear,  as  the  link  and  valve  rod  are 
both  moved  in  opposite  directions,  so  that  the  an- 
gularities and  distances  in  either  direction  are  re- 


GEAR 


231 


duced  to  one-half  of  tliose  in  either  of  the  other 
motions  under  comj)arison  with  an  increase  of 
lead  amounting  to  about  one-half  of  that  obtained 
by  the  Stephenson  gear  in  linking  up  the  engine. 
For  this  reason  the  Allan  gear  has  been  the  favor- 
ite valve  motion  in  continental  Europe  for  a  gen- 
eration or  more. 


FIG.  2 
ALLAN  VALVE  MOTION. 

With  properly  selected  lengths  of  lifting  arms 
of  the  reverse  shaft  the  link  is  made  straight  in- 
stead of  curved  as  in  the  previous  cases,  which,  in 
manufacturing  in  former  days,  was  of  no  little  im- 
portance in  its  favor.  From  Fig.  2  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  lifting  arms  are  placed  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  reversing  shafts,  necessitated  by  the  re- 
quired opposite  vertical  motion  of  the  link  and 
valve  rod  in  changing  the  cut-off  or  reversing  the 
engine  and  thereby  practically  balancing  each 
other  and  holding  the  reversing  shaft  in  an  ap- 
proximate equilibrium  at  any  position  of  the  re- 
versing lever. 

These  are  all  properties  of  considerable  advan- 
tage over  either  the  Stephenson  or  Gooch  gears 
and  deserve  therefore  a  closer  description. 


232  VALVE 

From  Fig.  2  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  operated 
by  two  eccentrics  and  rods  connected  to  the  link  in 
the  ordinary  way,  one  for  the  forward  and  the 
other  for  the  backward  motion  of  the  engine,  with 
open  rods  as  in  the  case  of  Stephenson  motion 
both  for  outside  and  inside  admission  valves  so 
that  the  lead  is  always  increasing  in  linking  up 
the  engine.  The  reversing  shaft  can  be  located 
above  or  below  the  link  as  is  found  most  con- 
venient without  in  any  perceptible  way  affecting 
the  distribution  of  the  steam.  The  proportions  of 
the  lengths  of  the  rods  and  lifting  arms  are  very' 
important  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  complete 
compensation  for  the  gain  of  horizontal  length  by 
one  rod  to  the  loss  by  the  others  in  change  of  an- 
gularity of  the  rods  in  linking  up  or  down.  These 
proportions  can  hardly  be  found  by  trial,  but  must 
be  carefully  figured  out  and  are  found  by  the  fol- 
lowing formula: 

L^^length  of  the  eccentric  rod, 
l^ength  of  the  radius  rod. 
P^distauce  c-d  in  the  figure. 
A=lengtli  of  radius  rod  lift  arm. 
B=link  lift  arm. 
l-li=A-fB. 

Although  the  Allan  motion  is  the  most  correct 
one  in  existence  it  has  never  gotten  any  foothold 
in  America,  probably  for  the  reason  that  it  has  to 
some  extent  the  same  objectionable  feature  as  the 
Gooch  in  regard  to  the  front  driving  axle,  which, 
however,  is  not  serious,  as  the  short  vertical 
sweep  of  the  valve  rod  admits  of  a  bend  or  a  yoke 


GEAR  233 

for  straddling  same.  As  this  motion  is  located 
inside  the  frames  and  occupies  about  the  same 
place  and  is  of  the  same  weight  as  the  Stephenson 
gear,  on  modern  engines  it  would  be  hea\y  and 
cumbersome  to  apply,  so  its  introduction  at  this 
time  is  hardly  to  be  looked  for.  These  conditions 
have  also  made  themselves  manifest  in  Europe, 
and  the  Allan  gear,  in  spite  of  its  excellent  qual- 
ities, is  fast  disappearing  from  modern  locomo- 
tives, being  disj)laced  by  the  more  advantagetus 
construction  and  application  of  the  Walschaert 
motion,  which  will  be  referred  to  later. 

The  Stephenson,  Gooch  and  Allan  motions  can 
be  classified  as  one  system  in  that  they  are  all 
based  on  the  two  eccentrics  set  in  s^Tnmetrical  re- 
lation to  the  line  of  motion,  one  governing  the  for- 
ward and  the  other  the  backward  movement  of  the 
engine,  differing  principally  only  in  the  matter  of 
lead.  In  the  Gooch  gear,  with  its  constant  lead, 
it  makes  little  difference  if  the  rods  are  crossed 
or  open,  but  in  the  Allan  and  Stephenson  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  rods  are  always  open  so  that 
there  is  no  reduction  of  lead  in  linking  up,  as 
crossed  rods  will  reduce  the  port  opening  at  the 
earlier  cut-off  and  cause  an  unfavorable  wire- 
drawing of  the  steam. 

The  expression  ''open  rods"  has  therefore  its 
definition  in  that  it  gives  an  increase  of  lead  and 
crossed  rods  a  reduced  lead  in  linking  up  the  en- 
gine, but  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  this  con- 
nection to  also  define  their  relative  positions  to 
the  crank  under  the  various  conditions  of  direct 
and  indirect  motions  and  outside  and  inside  steam 
admission  valves.  Therefore,  in  a  valve  gear  hav- 
ing direct  motion  and  outside  admission  valve,  the 


234 


VALVE 


eccentrics  at  the  beginuing  of  the  forward  stroke 
will  be  placed  between  the  link  and  the  center  of 
the  axle  and  the  crank  will  be  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  axle.    If  in  this  position  the  upper  eccentric 


FIG.  3  FIG.  4 

Fig.  3. —  Position  of  eccentrics  of  open  rods  for  direct  motion  with 
outside  admission  valve  and  indirect  motion  with  inside  admission  valve. 

Fig.  4. — Position  of  eccentrics  of  open  rods  for  indirect  motion  with 
outside  admission  valve  and- for  direct  motion  with  inside  admission 
valve. 

be  connected  to  the  upper  link  pin  and  the  lower 
eccentric  to  the  lower  link  pin,  we  will  have  open 
rods  as  shown  in  Fig.  3  represented  with  Stephen- 
son link.    In  a  valve  gear  with  indirect  motion, 


FIG.  5  FIG.  6 

Fig.  5. — Position  of  eccentrics  of  crossed  rods  for  direct  motion  with 
outside  admission  valve  and  for  indirect  motion  with  inside  admission 
valve. 

Fig.  6. — Position  of  eccentrics  of  crossed  rods  for  indirect  motion 
with  outside  admission  valve  and  direct  motion  with  inside  admission 
valve. 


the  eccentrics  will  be  placed  between  the  link  and 
center  of  the  axle  and  the  crank  on  its  center  on 
the  same  side  of  the  axle.    If  in  this  position  the 


GEAR 


233 


Til^per  eccentric  be  connected  to  the  upper  link  pin 
and  the  lower  eccentric  connected  to  the  lower  link 
pin,  we  will  have  open  rods  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  If 
in  same  positions  the  upper  eccentric  be  connected 
to  the  lower  link  pin  and  the  lower  eccentric  to  the 
upper  link  pin  we  will  have  crossed  rods  as  per 
Figs.  5  and  6  re  selectively.  With  inside  admis- 
sion valve  we  will  have  the  crank  and  eccentric 
positions  shown  in  Fig.  3  for  indirect  motion  and 
in  Fig.  4  for  direct  motion,  and  in  both  cases  we 
have  open  rods,  and  in  Fig.  5  indirect  and  in  Fig. 
6  direct  motion,  with  cross  rods.  By  this  it  is  seen 
that  the  valve  events  are  the  same  for  outside  ad- 
mission and  direct  motion  as  they  are  with  inside 
admission  and  indirect  motion,  and  vice  versa. 


FIG.  7 
ORIGINAL  HACKWORTH  VALVE  GEAR. 


HacJi worth  Valve  Motion. — There  are  various 
kinds  of  valve  motions  that  are  driven  with  a 
single  eccentric  among  which  the  oldest  probably 


236 


VALVE 


is  that  of  John  Wesley  Hackworth,  which  was  de- 
signed sometime  between  1840  and  1850,  and  while 
this  type  in  its  original  form  (shown  in  Fig.  7) 
is  not  suitable  for  locomotives,  it  is  referred  to  as 
the  starting  point  for  a  number  of  modifications, 
of  which  a  few  will  be  presented,  in  the  line  of  its 
evolution  to  fairly  .good  valve  motions  for  locomo- 
tives under  various  names  of  so-called  "radial'' 
gears. 

The  eccentric  in  this  design  can  be  placed  either 


FIG.  7a 


on  the  same  center  line  as  the  crank  or  directly 
opposite,  depending  upon  Avhether  the  valve  rod 
connection  is  made  between  the  eccentric  and  the 
link  block  or  whether  the  link  block  is  located  be- 


GEAR'  237 

tween  the  valve  rod  connection  and  the  eccentric. 
The  link  is  occasionally  made  straight  for  very 
long  valve  rods,  but  is  more  correctly  curved  to  a 
radius  of  the  length  of  the  rod  and  is  pivoted  on 
its  center  while  the  block  slides  from  one  end  of 
the  link  to  the  other  and  back  at  every  revolution 
of  the  crank.  The  link  fulcrum  is  the  reversing 
shaft  by  which  the  link  is  turned  to  any  desirable 
angle  that  will  give  the  required  throw  and  cut- 
off of  the  valve,  and  the  lap  and  lead  motion  is  ob- 
tained by  the  lever  action  of  the  eccentric  arm 
which,  therefore,  gives  a  constant  lead,  whereas 
the  opening  motion  of  the  valve  is  imparted  by  the 
regular  inclination  of  the  link,  and  the  combined 
paths  of  the  valve  rod  pin  are  represented  in  Fig. 
7a  in  enlarged  scale. 

In  1859  Hackworth  introduced  a  swinging  lever 
instead  of  the  link,  which  at  that  time  did  not  seem 
to  be  brought  into  use,  as  the  required  length  of 
an  arm  to  carry  same  was  impracticable.  Mr. 
Brown,  who  has  made  many  valuable  improve- 
ments in  the  development  of  this  gear,  introduced 
a  counterswinging  link  by  which  any  radius  could 
be  obtained,  but  the  arrangement  was  rather  com- 
plicated and  has  apparently  never  reached  any  ex- 
tended use  until  again  improved  upon  by  Klug, 
in  1878,  and  Marshall,  in  1880,  by  practically  rein- 
venting the  Hackworth  construction  of  1859,  and 
the  gear  in  that  form  has  since  been  known  mostly 
as  the  Marshall  gear  and  has  to  a  great  extent 
been  in  use  on  marine  engines  and  auxiliary  ma- 
chinery on  board  ships. 

Another  form  designed  by  Hackworth  is  shown 
in  Fig.  8,  where  he  attaches  the  eccentric  rod  or 
combination  lever  to  a  point  near  the  middle  of 


238 


VALVE 


the  connecting  rod  by  means  of  an  intermittent 
hanger  having  one  end  connected  to  a  return 
crank  on  the  main  pin  to  obtain  a  shorter  longi- 
tudinal motion  of  the  combination  lever  than  that 
of  the  stroke  of  the  engine;  the  reversing  shaft 
being  located  above  the  center  of  this  connection 
in  the  same  way  as  in  his  previous  design  above 
the  engine  shaft.     This  was  further  modified  by 


FIG.  8 
HACKWORTH  VALVE  GEAR. 


Brown,  in  1878,  by  introducing  a  system  of  levers 
to  reduce  the  swing  of  the  combination  lever,  in- 
stead of  the  return  crank. 

Joy  Modification. — In  1879  Mr.  Joy  applied  this 
gear  with  a  slight  modification  to  a  locomotive  en- 
gine and  it  is  therefore  generally  known  as  Joy's 


GEAR 


239 


gear.  It  is  largely  used  in  Russia  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  several  other  countries  without  having 
gained  any  predominating  use  over  the  Allan  mo- 
tion which,  as  said  before,  until  a  few  years  ago 
was  the  general  favorite  in  continental  Europe. 
Fig.  9  shows  the  Joy  gear  in  a  general  way,  and 


FIG.  9 

JOY  VALVE  GEAR. 

it  is  probably  the  highest  development  of  the 
Hackworth  motion  adaptable  to  locomotives  and 
gives  a  very  good  steam  distribution  when  prop- 
erl}^  fitted  up,  but  the  effect  on  the  movement  of 
the  valve  by  the  vertical  play  of  the  main  axle  on 
a  rough  track  is  not  entirely  eliminated. 

In  this  arrangement,  as  well  as  in  the  original, 
and  in  fact  in  all  modifications  of  the  Hackworth 
gear,  the  link  block  or  combination  lever  fulcrum 
can  be  guided  by  a  curved  frame  ("link"  as  it 
has  been  called  on  account  of  its  similarity  to  the 


240  YALYE 

ordinary  reversing  links),  or  by  a  swinging  link 
and  arm  of  approximately  the  same  length  as  the 
radius  bar  where  such  a  construction  is  appli- 
cable. 

No  principle  of  valve  motions  has  been  so  fas- 
cinating and  subject  to  so  many  varieties  of  con- 
struction as  that  of  Hackworth,  and  a  score  or 
more  inventors  have,  with  comparatively  small 
modifications,  found  them  meritorious  enough  to 
connect  them  with  their  names. 

Walschaert  Valve  Motion. — One  of  the  most 
suitable  forms  of  radial  gear  for  locomotives  is 
unquestionably  the  one  invented  by  the  Belgian 
engineer,  Egide  Walschaert,  in  1844,  and  applied 
to  locomotives  a  few  years  later,  which  is  shown 
in  Figs.  10,  10a  and  11,  but  it  was  not  properly 
understood  or  appreciated  during  the  first  twenty 
years  following  its  invention,  and  has  ever  since 
then  made  slow  headway  until  a  few  years  ago, 
when  it  took  quite  a  sudden  move  forward  and  is 
at  present  the  dominating  valve  gear  throughout 
the  continent  of  Europe,  and  is  rapidly  gaining 
ground  in  this  country,  where,  only  within  the 
last  few  years,  it  has  been  applied  to  engines  for 
regular  road  service,  although  it  has  been  in  use 
in  sundry  cases,  principally  small  engines.  This 
gear  may  be  said  to  be  based  on  a  fundamental 
principle  of  its  own,  but  has  also  been  subject  to 
a  few  modifications  without  any  special  improve- 
ment over  its  original  form. 

The  motion  of  the  valve  is  derived  from  two 
sources,  namely,  the  main  crank  by  connection 
to  the  crosshead,  and  from  an  eccentric  placed  ap- 
proximately at  right  angles  to  the  main  crank. 
The  crosshead  connection  imparts  the  motion  of 


GEAR 


241 


FIG.  10 


FIG.  10a 


FIG.  II 


lap  and  lead  at  the  extremities  of  the  stroke  of  the 
piston,  at  which  moment  the  link  is  in  its  central 
position.  Therefore  in  the  midgear  with  the  re- 
verse lever  in  its  center  notch  this  will  he  all  the 
motion  imparted  to  the  valve  and  the  radius  bar 


242  VALVE 

becomes  stationary.  The  link  is  curved  to  a  radius 
equal  to  the  length  of  the  radius  bar.  By  moving 
the  reverse  lever  forward  the  eccentric  motion  is 
brought  into  combination  with  the  motion  from 
the  crosshead,  producing  a  valve  opening  for  the 
forward  motion  of  the  engine,  and  ))y  moving  the 
reverse  lever  backward  the  link  block  is  brought 
to  the  opposite  side  of  the  link  fulcrum,  resulting 
in  a  valve  opening  governing  the  backward  mo- 
tion of  the  engine,  in  effect  similar  to  that  of  the 
Stephenson  motion.  The  action  of  this  one  eccen- 
tric is  therefore  the  same  as  if  it  was  two  eccen- 
trics, one  for  forward  and  one  for  backward  mo- 
tion, placed  diametrically  opposite  each  other,  and 
the  angle  of  advance  in  the  Stephenson  motion  is 
taken  care  of  by  the  main  crank  in  the  crosshead 
connection.  The  latter  motion  being  constant,  it 
follows  that  the  lead  remains  constant  at  all 
points  of  cut-off. 

The  proportions  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
Walschaert  gear  can  not  be  determined  experi- 
mentally, nor  should  any  change  in  setting  the 
valves  be  made  unless  the  effect  of  the  change  is 
known  in  advance.  It  is  therefore  important  that 
the  different  parts  should  be  made  and  set  cor- 
rectly from  the  beginning  and  there  will  then  be 
no  need  for  changes  when  the  original  dimensions 
are  maintained.  The  difference  in  this  gear  for 
outside  and  inside  admission  valves  must  be  con- 
sidered in  setting  the  eccentric  crank  and  as  the 
forward  motion  of  the  engine  should  preferably 
be  taken  from  the  lower  end  of  the  link  when  the 
eccentric  crank  will  folloiv  the  main  crank  for  in- 
side admission  valve  (see  Figs.  10  and  10a),  and 
lead  the  main  crank  for  outside  admission  valve 


GEAR  243 

(see  Fig.  11).*  The  connecting  point  of  the  radius 
bar  to  the  combination  lever  is  above  that  of  the 
valve  stem  connection  for  inside  admission  and 
below  the  valve  stem  connection  for  outside  ad- 
mission valves  (see  Figs.  10,  10a  and  11).  The  de- 
sired maximum  cut-off,  lead  and  valve  travel  de- 
tennines  the  size  of  the  lap,  and  the  lap  and  lead- 
motion  is  obtained  by  the  corresponding  propor- 
tioning of  the  combination  lever,  and  found  from 
the  following  formula 

E:  C  =  L:  V. 

E  =■  radius  of  the  main  crank. 

C  =  lap  and  lead  (one  side). 

L  =  distance  between  radius  bar  and  cross- 
head  connection  (from  F  to  M,  Fig. 
10a),  on  the  combination  lever. 

V  =  distance  between  the  radius  bar  and 
valve  stem  connections. 

The  length  of  the  combination  lever  must  be 
taken  to  suit  the  conditions  under  consideration 
in  each  case,  so  that  the  angle  through  which  it 
oscillates  will  not  exceed  60  degrees,  but  less  is 
preferable.  The  required  horizontal  movement  or 
travel  of  the  connecting  point  F  of  the  radius  bar 
to  the  combination  lever  for  a  given  maximum 
valve  travel  must  now  be  ascertained  and  is  found 


♦With  short  eccentric  rods  the  distribution  will  be  somewhat 
improved  with  inside  admission  valves  when  the  ahead  motion 
is  taken  from  the  upper  end  of  the  link,  and  the  eccentric 
crank  leads  the  main  crank,  but  in  order  to  reduce  stresses  on 
the  link  fulcrum  the  lower  end  is  more  generally  used,  as 
this  refinement  will  not  show  any  practical  difference  when 
the  lengths  of  the  radius  bar  and  eccentric  rod  are  not  less 
than  three  and  one-half  times  their   vertical   deflections. 


244 


VALVE 


by  the  following  formula,*  in  which  R  and  C  are 
the  same  as  above,  namely : 

R  =  radius  of  main  crank. 

C  =  lap  and  lead. 

a  =half  of  the  travel  of  the  valve. 

b  =  half  fthe  travel  of  point  F. 


b= 


R+C 


for  outside  admission,  and 


b= 


R—C 


for  inside  admission  valve. 


These  may  also  be  laid  out  graphically  as  per 
Fig.  12  for  outside  and  Fig.  13  for  inside  admis- 
sion valves  by  drawing  a  circle  with  S  as  a  center 
and  a  as  radius  (shown  dotted  in  the  figures). 
Lay  out  crank  radius  R  to  the  left  from  S  =  Sd 
and  the  lap  and  lead  dimension  C  =  Se  on  same 
side  of  S  for  inside  admission  (Fig.  13),  and  on 


FIG.  12 


opposite  side  of  S  for  outside  admission  (Fig.  12). 
Draw  ef  and  Sh  perpendicular  to  Sd  when  f  be- 
comes the  intersecting  point  between  the  valve 
travel  circle  and  the  line  ef.  Draw  the  line  df 
and  where  thi^  intersects  the  line  Sh,  which  point 

♦Evolved  by  Mr.  C.  J.  Mellin. 


GEAR 


245 


we  will  call  li  (found  by  extending  df  in  Fig.  13) ; 
Sli  is  then  the  desired  dimension  b  in  the  formula, 
or  one-half  the  required  movement  of  point  F,  the 
total  of  which  is  represented  by  the  full  drawn 
circle  in  the  figures. 

This  is  a  most  important  function  of  the  gear 
upon  which  practically  all  the  others  depend  and 
is  rather  complicated  to  find  by  plotting.     With 


FIG.  13 


a  correct  suspension  of  the  link  block  it  will  have 
the  same  horizontal  movement  as  the  point  F,  and 
by  limiting  the  angle  of  the  swing  of  the  link  to 
45  degrees  as  a  maximum  we  get  the  rise  or  de- 
pression of  the  link  block  on  either  side  of  the 

b* 

link  fulcrum  the   distance    Og  = , 

tan.  d 
(Fig.  10a)  where  0  is  the  link  fulcrum,. d  =  one- 
half  of  the  swing  of  the  link  in  degrees,  and  b  =? 
half  the  travel  of  point  F  in  the  previous  formula. 
The  vertical  location  of  the  link  fulcrum  0 
should  be,  when    practicable,    on    a    line    drawn 


*As  no  suspension  gives  a  perfectly  equal  drop  of  the  block 
in  both  link  positions  this  formula  is  only  approximate. 


246  VALVE 

through  point  F  parallel  with  the  valve  stem,  and 
the  eccentric  rod  connecting  pin  K  to  the  link 
shonkl  be  as  nearly  as  practicable  on  the  same 
level  as  the  main  axle  in  order  to  minimize  the 
effect  of  the  vertical  play  of  the  axle  on  the  valve 
events,  but  on  large  engines  it  may  be  found  nec- 
essary to  lower  fulcrum  O  and  raise  connection 
K  to  avoid  excessive  throw  of  the  eccentric  crank. 

In  locating  the  longitudinal  position  of  the  link 
fulcrum  consideration  must  be  given  to  the 
lengths  of  the  eccentric  and  radius  bars  so  that 
both  may  be  of  approximately  the  same  length. 
When  these  lengths  fall  below  three  and  one-half 
times  the  total  vertical  sweep  of  the  link  block  the 
radius  bar  should  be  favored  in  preference  to  the 
eccentric  rod.  The  exact  position  of  the  eccentric 
crank  must  be  plotted  as  well  as  the  longitudinal 
location  of  point  K.  The  former  must  bear  such 
relation  to  the  main  crank  that  it  brings  the  link 
in  its  middle  position  when  the  main  crank  is  on 
either  of  its  dead  centers  and  the  connecting  point 
K  must  be  so  located  that  it  swings  the  link  in 
the  required  angle  d  on  either  side  of  the  middle 
position  of  the  link;  that  is,  in  other  words,  the 
point  K  should  be  so  located  on  the  curve  it  must 
follow  with  fulcrum  0  as  a  center  that  its  devia- 
tion from  the  tangent  of  the  eccentric  rod  to  this 
curve  is  such  that  it  as  near  as  practicable  com- 
pensates for  the  irregularities  brought  about  by 
the  angularities  of  the  main  and  eccentric  rods 
which  in  ordinary  cases  brings  it  from  2  inches 
to  5  inches  in  the  rear  of  the  tangent  to  the  link 
drawn  through  the  fulcrum  O. 

The  locus  of  the  suspension  point  of  the  radius 
bar  lifting  link  must  also  be  plotted  so  that  the 


GEAR  247 

link  block  is  at  the  same  point  of  the  link  in  its 
extreme  positions  at  all  cut-offs.  This  locus  is 
a  curve  with  its  center  in  the  vicinity  of  the  point 
F  when  in  its  mid-gear  position.  It  would  be  im- 
jDracticable,  however,  to  have  a  lift  arm  of  this 
length,  and  a  curve  of  smaller  radius  must  be  sub- 
stituted and  so  applied  that  it  intersects  with  the 
former  curve  at  points  giving  the  least  possible 
distortion  to  the  motion  favoring  the  position  of 
the  link  block  in  which  it  is  mostly  used  in  service. 

The  sliding  lifter  shown  in  Fig.  10  meets  these 
conditions  better  than  any  other  method  of  sus- 
pension, but,  due  to  wheel  arrangements  of  vari- 
ous designs  of  engines,  this  is  not  always  appli- 
cable but  must  be  substituted  by  swinging  lifters 
as  per  Figs.  10a  and  11,  which,  when  properly 
plotted,  gives  for  all  practical  purposes  equally 
good  results. 

The  vertical  height  of  lower  connection  m  of 
the  combination  lever  in  relation  to  the  crosshead 
connection  has  a  slight  influence  on  the  port  open- 
ing and  should,  therefore,  in  the  center  position 
of  the  lever,  be  about  in  the  same  level  as  the 
crosshead  connecting  point  n  (see  Fig.  10a). 

In  Fig.  14  is  the  motion  of  the  valve  graphically 
represented  by  the  Long  diagram  at  different  cut- 
offs where  the  horizontal  lines  represent  the  port 
opening  edges  in  the  cylinder  face  and  the  curves 
of  the  steam  inlet  edges  of  the  valve,  showing  the 
opening  and  cut-off  points  where  the  latter  inter- 
sect the  former  and  the  port  openings  at  the  vari- 
ous points  of  the  stroke  are  measured  by  the 
height  of  these  curves  over  and  under  the  opening 
edges  of  the  ports  at  both  ends  of  the  valve  re- 
spectively. 


248 


VALVE 


It  will  be  noticed  that  these  ellipses  are  slightly 
flattened  on  one  side,  which  is  caused  by  the  slow- 
er lineal  motion  imparted  to  the  valve  relative 
to  the  angular  motion  when  the  eccentric  passes 
its  back  center  compared  with  that  of  the  front 
center  due  to  the  angularity  of  the  eccentric  rod 
and  is  more  marked  the  shorter  the  rod.  Fully 
sjTiimetrical  ellipses  are  not  obtainable  as  this 
would  require  the  eccentric  and  main  rods  to  be 


EXHAUST. LINE  A  LINE 


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FIG.  14 


of  in"finite  length,  but  this  angularity  however  is 
of  but  little  detriment  to  the  distribution  of  the 
steam  as  long  as  the  relations  between  the  lengths 
of  the  eccentric  rod  and  the  throw  of  the  eccentric 
is  not  less  than  the  given  limitations,  and  is  pres- 
ent in  all  kinds  of  continuous  valve  motions  de- 
rived from  uniformly  rotating  cranks  or  eccen- 
trics. 

General  Notes  for  Adjusting  Walschaert  Gear. 
1.  Ascertain  by  the  following  method  the  posi- 
tion of  the  eccentric  crank :    Mark  the  position  of 


GEAR  249 

the  link  relative  to  its  middle  position  on  both  of 
the  dead  centers  of  the  main  crank.  If  the  posi- 
tion of  the  link  is  the  same  in  both  cases  the  eccen- 
tric crank  jDOsition  is  correct,  if  not  the  eccentric 
crank  should  be  shifted  until  this  occurs  or  as 
near  so  as  possible. 

2.  After  the  eccentric  crank  has  been  correctly 
set  the  eccentric  rod  should  be  lengthened  or 
shortened  as  may  be  required  to  bring  the  link  in 
its  middle  position  when  the  main  crank  is  on 
either  of  its  dead  centers,  so  that  the  link  block  can 
be  moved  from  its  extreme  forward  to  its  extreme 
backward  position  without  imparting  any  motion 
to  the  valve,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  link  posi- 
tion may  be  observed  by  the  usual  tram  marks 
on  the  valve  stem,  or  direct  by  marks  on  the  link 
pin  as  may  be  found  most  convenient  with  the  link 
block  in  full  gear,  preferably  ahead. 

3.  The  difference  between  the  two  positions  of 
the  valve  on  the  forward  and  back  centers  of  the 
engine  is  the  lap  and  lead  doubled;  it  is  the  same 
in  any  position  of  the  link  block  and  can  not  be 
changed  without  changing  the  leverage  relations 
of  the  combination  lever. 

4.  The  tram  marks  of  the  opening  moments  at 
both  ends  of  the  valve  should  be  marked  on  the 
valve  stem  and  the  latter  lengthened  or  shortened 
until  equal  leads  at  both  ends  are  obtained. 

5.  Within  certain  limits  this  lengthening  or 
shortening  may  be  made  on  the  radius  bar,  if  it 
should  prove  more  convenient,  but  it  is  desirable 
that  the  length  of  this  bar  should  be  so  nearly 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  link  that  no  apparent 
change  in  the  lead  should  occur  in  moving  the  link 
block  as  stated  in  note  Xo.  2. 


250  VALVE 

6.  The  lead  may  be  increased  by  reducing  the 
lap  and  the  cut-oil"  points  will  then  be  slightly  ad- 
vanced. Increasing  the  lap  produces  the  opposite 
effect  on  the  cut-off  and  reduces  the  lead  the  same 
amount.  With  good  judgment  these  quantities 
may  be  varied  to  off'set  the  irregularities  inherent 
in  transforming  rotary  into  lineal  motions; 

7.  The  valve  events  are  to  a  great  extent  de- 
pendent on  the  location  of  the  suspension  point 
of  lifter  of  the  rear  end  of  the  radius  bar,  when 
swinging  lifter  is  used,  which  requires  that  this 
point  should  be  properly  laid  out  by  careful  plot- 
ting, or,  if  convenient,  it  is  preferably  determined 
by  a  model,  as  irregularities  due  to  incorrect  locus 
of  this  point  can  not  be  corrected  by  the  other 
parts  of  the  gear  without  more  or  less  distortion 
of  same.  When  this  point  is  so  fixed  that  a  change 
of  same  is  impracticable  it  may  be  better  however 
to  modify  other  elements  if  thereby  the  motion  in 
general  can  be  improved. 

The  chief  point  of  difference  between  the  Wal- 
schaert  and  Stephenson  gear  when  both  are  in 
proper  conditions  is,  as  previously  stated,  that  the 
former  gives  to  the  valve  a  constant  lead  at  all 
cut-offs,  whereas  the  latter  produces  an  increase 
of  lead  by  linking  up  the  engine  and  becomes  ex- 
cessive at  short  cut-off's.  This  very  point  has  been 
the  subject  for  much  controversy  and  has  prob- 
ably done  more  than  anything  else  to  retard  the 
progress  of  the  use  of  Walschaert  gear;  as  it  has 
been  argued  that  in  full  gear,  when  the  speed  gen- 
erally is  slow  only  small  lead  is  needed,  but  at 
higher  speed  more  lead  is  required,  which  is  ac- 
complished by  the  Stephenson  motion,  though  this 
admittedly  becomes  excessive   at   early   cut-offs, 


GEAR  251 

causing  considerable  compression  and  preadmis- 
sion detrimental  both  to  nlainteuauce  and  to 
smooth  running,  and,  in  fact,  to  some  degree  coun- 
teracts the  work  done  by  the  steam  on  the  driving- 
side  of  the  piston,  which  thereby  also  affects  the 
speed  of  the  engine. 

It  was  gradually  discovered  that  the  required 
lead  for^short  cut-off  and  high  speed  was  of  no 
l^ractical  detriment  to  the  working  of  the  engine 
in  full  gear  as  the  preadmission  at  tRat  point  is 
disappeariugly  small.  The  proper  amount  of  lead 
however  is  dei:)eudent  somewhat  on  the  service, 
and  the  port  opening  becomes  larger  with  a  larger 
lead,  or,  in  other  words,  when  all  other  condi- 
tions are  equal  in  a  Stephenson  or  Walschaert 
gear  the  openings  differ  by  the  same  amount  as 
the  lead,  so  that  1-16  inch  more  lead  gives  1-16 
inch  wider  port  opening ;  but  it  is  hardly  advisable 
to  make  this  over  y_^  inch  or  5-16  inch  as  a  maxi- 
mum, as  the  advantage  of  any  additional  port 
opening  by  means  of  a  larger  lead  is  more  than 
offset  ])y  the  increase  in  compression  and  pread- 
mission the  larger  lead  would  bring  about  at  early 
cut-offs,  and  would  do  no  good  in  the  later  cut-offs 
even  if  it  does  not  do  any  harm. 

There  is  no  fimdamental  reason  that  the  Wal- 
schaert gear  should  produce  any  economy  in 
steam  consumption  over  the  Stephenson  motion 
when  both  are  in  the  best  conditions,  but  an  ad- 
vantage in  this  respect  comes  to  the  former  by 
the  fact  that  it  remains  in  its  good  condition  if 
once  made  so,  from  one  shopping  to  another,  and 
is  therefore  on  an  average  more  economical  both 
in  steam  consumption  and  maintenance  of  the 
gear  than  the  latter.    The  accessibility  for  atten- 


252  VALVE 

tion  is  a  great  point  -of  undisputed  advantage  of 
the  Walschaert  gear  whicli  is  also  highly  appre- 
ciated by  the  enginemen  and  attendants. 

It  will  be  borne  out  in  the  course  of  time  that 
the  bracing  between  the  frames  permitted  by 'the 
Walschaert  gear  will  bring  about  a  considerable 
reduction  in  the  maintenance  expenses  by  the  less 
wear  and  tear  this  additional  rigidity  will  impart 
to  the  entire  engine. 

GENERAL   INSTEUCTIONS   FOR  THE   WALSCHAERT 
VALVE  GEAR.* 

In  setting  the  Walschaert  valve  gear  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  two  distinct  motions  are  in  combination,  viz. :  the 
motion  due  to  the  crosshead  travel,  and  the  motion  due  to  the 
eccentric  throw. 

The  crosshead  motion  controls  the  lead,  by  moving  the  valve 
sufficiently  to  overcome  its  lap,  by  the  amount  of  lead  in  both 
front  and  back  positions.  The  eccentric  throw  controls  the  travel 
and  reversing  operations.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  movement 
due  to  the  eccentric,  without  the  crosshead  motion,  would  place 
the  valve  centrally  over  the  ports  when  the  piston  is  at  the 
extreme  end  of  the  stroke.  The  combined  effect  of  these  two 
motions,  when  the  parts  are  properly  designed,  gives  the  required 
movement  of  the  valve,  similar  to  that  obtained  by  the  use  of  a 
stationary  link.  To  reverse  the  engine  the  link  block  is  moved 
from  end  to  end  of  the  link,  instead  of  moving  tke  link  on  the 
block.  This  operation  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  reversing 
shaft  connected  -with  a  reversing  lever  in  the  cab. 

Walschaert  gears  should  be  correctly  laid  out  and  constructed 
from  a  diagram,  as  the  proportions  cannot  be  tampered  with  by 
experimental  changes  without  seriously  affecting  the  correct  work- 
ing of  the  device. 

The  only  part  capable  of  variation  in  length  is  the  eccentric 
rod,  which  connects  the  eccentric  with  the  link.  This  rod  may  be 
slightly  lengthened  or  shortened,  to  correct  errors  in  location  of 
the  link  center,  from  center  of  driving  axle  which  carries  the 
eccentric. 

The  eccentric  usually  assumes  the  form  of  a  return  crank  on 
one  of  the  crank  pins,  and  its  center  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
plane  of  motion,  viz. :  at  ninety  degrees  to  a  line  drawn  from 
the  point  on  the  link  at  which  the  eccentric  rod  is  attached, 
through    the    center    of    the    driving    axle.      This    eliminates    the 

•  Formulated  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works. 


GEAR  253 

angular  advance  of  the  eccentric,  and  allows  the  use  of  a  single 
eccentric  for  both  forward  and  backward  motion.  The  throw  as 
specified  must  be  correctly  obtained,  and  great  care  taken  that  the 
position  shown  in  the  design  be  adhered  to.  The  crank  repre- 
senting the  eccentric  is  permanently  fixed  to  the  pin,  and  the 
slightest  variation  will  be  detrimental. 

When  the  engine  is  assembled,  the  throw  of  the  eccentric  should 
be  checked  up  by  the  specifications,  and  any  error  should  be  at 
once  reported  in  order  that  the  mistake  may  be  rectified  by  either 
correcting  the  position  of  the  eccentric,  or  by  a  change  in  the 
design  of  the  other  parts  to  compensate  for  the  error. 

In  case  of  accident,  if  any  of  the  rods  or  connections  are 
broken,  it  is  advisable  if  possible  to  disconnect  the  eccentric  rod. 
The  combining  lever  should  be  uncoupled  from  the  crosshead  and 
securely  fastened  in  forward  position.  If  for  any  reason  the 
eccentric  rod  cannot  be  taken  down,  the  radius  rod  must  be 
removed  in  order  that  no  motion  may  be  imparted  to  the  valve. 
The  valve  can  then  be  placed  in  central  position  and  held  either 
by  suitable  blocking  or  by  clamping  the  valve  rod.  This  seals 
both  steam  ports  and  cuts  out  the  cylinder  on  the  damaged  side. 

SPECIAL  INSTEUCTIONS  FOR  ERECTING  AND  SETTING 
VALVES. 

1.  Cheek  carefully  the  dimensions  of  the  following  parts, 
rejecting  any  that  are  not  exactly  to  drawing: 

a.  Valve. 

6.  Valve  stem. 

c.  Valve  crosshead  or  slide. 

d.  Combining  lever. 

e.  Crosshead  link. 

f.  Link  radius  rod. 

g.  Eerverse  link. 

h.     Location  of  combining  lever  on  crosshead. 
k.     Length  of  eccentric  crank. 

2.  Check  eccentric  throw  to  see  that  it  is  exactly  as  specified. 

3.  Be  sure  that  guide  bearer  is  correctly  located  from  center 
of  cylinder,  as  the  reverse  link  is  usually  attached  to  it,  and  varia- 
tions in  the  location  of  the  link  cannot  be  allowed.  If  the  link  is 
attached  to  separate  crosstie,  similar  precautions  must  be  taken 
to  insure  its  correct  location. 

4.  Exercise  great  care  in  the  location  of  the  link  so  that  the 
trunnion  center  is  exactly  to  dimensions  from  the  center  of  cylin- 
der. 

5.  See  that  the  reverse  shaft  center  is  correctly  located  to 
dimensions  given,  and  that  the  lifting  arm  and  link  are  of  the 
exact  lengths  as  specified. 

6.  Connect  crosshead  gear  to  valve,  and  radius  rod  to  link, 
without  connecting  eccentric  rod  to  link. 


254  VALVE 

7.  Hook  up  radius  rod  to  exact  center  of  link,  and  then  revolve 
driving  ivheels,  seeing  that  crosshead  gear  gives  correct  lead  as 
specified  for  both  front  and  back  admission  ports. 

8.  Connect  link  to  return  crank  by  ecc(?ntric  rod,  and  obtain 
full  travel  front  and  back,  and  in  both  forward  and  backward 
motions,  correcting  any  errors  by  lengthening  or  shortening  eccen- 
tric rod  as  noted  under  ' '  General  Instructions. ' ' 

The  valves  may  now  be  considered  as  definitely  set,  and  may 
be  tested  to  any  cut-off  points  in  the  usual  manner. 

A  simple  additional  check  should  be  made  as  follows: 

Set  one  side  of  the  engine  so  that  piston  is  at  its  extreme  for- 
ward position  in  cylinder,  and  check  lead  on  admission  port. 

In  this  position  it  should  be  possible  to  move  the  link  block 
through  its  entire  travel  in  the  link,  without  in  any  way  disturb- 
ing the  movement  of  the  valve. 

This  operation  should  then  be  reversed,  and  the  pther  side  of 
the  engine  similarly  tried  with  the  piston  located  at  its  extreme 
backward  position  in  the  cylinder. 

Questions  and  Answers  Eelative  to  the  Wal- 
SCHAERT Valve  Gear. — The  following  questions  and 
answers  relative  to  the  practical  operation  of  the 
Walschaert  Valve  Gear  have  been  formulated  by 
a  well-known  authority  on  the  subject.* 

Question  1. — Define  the  meaning  of  the  term  "valve  motion." 

Answer. — The  gerr,  or  arrangement  of  rods,  levers,  etc.,  actuat- 
ing the  valve  that  admits  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  cylinder 
of  an  engine  and  finally  exhausts  it  therefrom  is  referred  to  as 
the  valve  gear,  or  valve  motion;  it  is  the  expansive  force  of  the 
steam  in  the  cylinder  that  drives  the  piston,  which  in  turn, 
through  connecting  rods,  forces  the  driving  wheels  to  turn  around 
and  move  the  locomotive.  The  valve  gear  includes  the  mechanism 
by  which  the  engine  may  be  reversed  as  to  the  direction  in  which 
it  runs,  through  altering  the  steam  distribution ;  and  the  reversing 
mechanism  is  further  employed  to  fix  the  degree  of  steam  admis- 
sion to  the  cylinder  and  its  retention  there  in  proportion  to  the 
stroke  of  the  piston. 

Q.  2. — Name  the  different  parts  that  comprise  the  Walschaert 
valve  gear  as  shown  in  the  photo-engraving  of  the  motion  work  of 
the  Baldwin  engine  in  Fig.  1. 

A. — In  Fig.  I  pointer  No.  3  rests  on  the  link  which  is  suspended 
by  a  fulcrum  pin,  or  trunnion,  at  its  exact  center,  from  a  bracket  - 
attached   to   the   guide-bearer,   or  yoke;    the   lower   extension    of 

*  Mr.  W.  W.  Wood  in  the  Locomotive  Firemen  and  Engine- 
men's  Magazine. 


GEAR 


255 


256  VALVE. 

the  link,  the  link  foot,  is  indicated  by  pointer  No.  9,  and  the 
eccentric  by  No.  7,  while  No.  8  points  to  the  eccentric  rud  and 
No.  4  J;o  the  radius  rod;  No.  2  indicates  the  reversing,  or  lifting, 
arm,  from  which  the  radius  rod  is  hung  by  the  suspension  bar 
denoted  by  pointer  No.  1 ;  the  valve-stem  slide,  No.  5,  acts  as  a 
cross-head  in  carrying  the  valve-stem.  No.  6,  and  the  combina- 
tion lever.  No.  12;  the  piston's  motion  is  imparted  to  the  lower 
end  of  the  combination  lever  through  the  cross-head  arm.  No.  10, 
and  the  vibrating  link,  No.  11,  and  it  may  be  well  to  state  that 
the  combination  lever  is  called  the  vibrating  arm  by  some  loco- 
motive builders.  The  valve  of  the  engine  shown  in  Fig.  1  is 
of  the  piston  type,  with  "inside  admission." 

Q.  3. — What  is  meant  by  the  "expansive  force"  of  the  steam? 

A. — For  the  production  of  power,  matter  must  first  be  changed 
in  form  or  state,  and  its  effort  to  return  to  its  original  form 
or  state  creates  a  force  that  may  be  employed  and  controlled. 
Through  the  action  of  heat,  water  in  a  locomotive  boiler  is 
changed  to  compressed  steam,  and  in  its  effort  to  expand — to  fill 
a  larger  space — this  force  is  created;  when  the  steam  is  being 
released  through  the  cylinders  of  an  engine  its  expansion,  to 
make  more  room  for  itself,  forces  the  piston  from  it ;  as  it 
expands  its  pressure  lessens,  but  if  steam  is  continually  admitted 
to  the  cylinder  during  the  whole  stroke  of  the  piston  its  power 
continues  undiminished,  because  the  comparatively  small  cylinder 
is  receiving  the  expansive  effort  frJm'  the  whole  boiler,  and  in 
this  case  expansion  really  drives  the  piston,  but  the  term  is  not 
made  use  of.  If  the  admission  of  steam  from  a  boiler  pressure 
of  100  pounds  to  a  cylinder  with  a  piston  stroke  of  24  inches 
should  be  closed  after  the  piston  has  traveled,  say  12  inches,  the 
pressure  against  the  jiiston  at  the  instant  of  cessation  of  boiler 
supply  would  be,  approximately,  100  pounds  per  square  inch,  but 
thereafter,  as  the  piston  was  forced  to  advance  in  its  travel,  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  would  decrease  in  inverse 
ratio  to  the  increase  in  its  volume — the  increasing  spa(*e  between 
the  piston  and  the  pressure  head  of  the  cylinder — until,  when  the 
piston  had  completed  its  twenty-fourth  inch  of  stroke,  and  if  the 
exhaust  had  not  yet  commenced,  the  steam  would  have  a  pressure 
approximating  50  pounds  per  square  inch,  for  the  volume  of  the 
steam  would  then  be  twice  what  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  cut-off 
of  its  supply.  If  the  closure  of  steam  supply  had  been  earlier  in 
the  stroke  than  12  inches  the  expansion  would  have  been  carried 
further,  and  the  steam  finally  released  from  the  cylinder  at  a  still 
lower  pressure;  but  in  a  locomotive  cylinder  steam  is  never  ex- 
panded down  to  a  pressure  lower  than  that  which  will  produce 
the  required  power.  In  starting  a  heavy  train  expansion,  as  we 
term  it,  is  not  made  use  of,  while  the  lighter  the  train  and  the 
faster  it  is  run,  the  shorter  will  be  the  duration  of  steam  admis- 
sion to  the  cylinder,  with  a  consequent  increase  in  the  length  of 
expansive  effort  of  the  steam  at  each  stroke  of  the  piston.  Steam 


I 


GEAR 


257 


25S  VALVE 

is  capable  of  doing  work  until  it  has  expanded  down  to  an  equiva- 
lent of  atmosj)heri(,'  pressure,  and  at  that  stage  will  still  exert  a 
force  of  nearly  lo  pounds  to  the  square  inch  if  a  vacuum  be 
produced  on  the  oj)posite  side  of  tlie  piston  by  complete  con- 
densation of  the  exhaust  steam.  The  engine  that  shows  the  great- 
est economy  in  the  use  of  steam  is  the  one  in  which  there  is  the 
widest  difference  between  the  cylinder  pressures  at  the  times  of 
steam  admission  and  release. 

Q.  4. — How  many  general  types  of  locotnotive  valve  motion  are 
in  use  on  American  railways? 

A. — There  are  two :  The  so-called  ' '  Stephenson ' '  gear,  or  link 
motion,  and  tiie  Walschaert  type.  Both  were  invented  at  dates 
not  so  far  apart,  before  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  The 
Stephenson  gear,  an  Englishman's  device,  has  been  practically 
the  standard  American  locomotive  valve  gear  until  the  present 
century,  while  the  Walschaert  motion,  the  production  of  a 
Belgian,  has  been  the  favorite  on  European  railways.  The  Wal- 
schaert gear  has  been  given  desultory  trials  in  this  country,  but 
was  never  taken  up  with  a  serious  intention  of  determining  its 
merits  until  within  the  past  few  years. 

•  Q.  5. — From  where  does  valve  gear,  of  any  type,  receive  its 
actuation? 

A. — As  the  valve  controls  the  action  of  the  piston  its  phases 
must  be  coincidental  with  certain  regularly  re-occurring  phases 
of  the  piston 's  operation ;  therefore  the  valve  must  receive  its 
motion  from  some  point  or  combination  of  points  in  the  machin- 
ery that  is  actuated  by  the  piston. 

Q.  6. — What  type  of  valve  is  required  in  association  with  the 
Walschaert    style  of  gear? 

A. — As  with  the  common  link  motion,  any  type  of  valve  that  is 
in  favor  may  be  used  with  the  Walschaert  gear.  The  valve  is 
not  regarded  really  as  a  part  of  the  valve  gear. 

Q.  7. — What  is  the  principal  difference  between  the  Stephen- 
son link  motion  and  the  Walschaert     valve  gear? 

A. — Both  systems  employ  a  link  for  reversion  of  direction  of 
motion,  but  in  the  Stephenson  gear  it  is  a  "floating"  link,  of 
swing  suspension,  its  motion  imparted  by  two  eccentrics  attached 
to  the  main  shaft,  or  axle,  and  raising  or  lowering  the  link  past 
its  central  position  causes  the  reversion,  while  a  slight  shift 
up  or  down  will  shorten  or  lengthen  the  period  of  steam  admis- 
sion to  the  cylinders,  because  the  valve  receives  its  regular  mo- 
tion directly  from  a  block  carried  in  the  slot  of  the  link.  The 
Walschaert  link  is  suspended  by  a  fixed  fulcrum  pin,  or  trunnion, 
located  at  the  exact  center  of  the  link  saddle,  to  which  it 
oscillates,  and  can  not  be  raised  nor  lowered.  The  link  receives 
its  motion  from  a  single  eccentric,  the  forward  end  of  which 
is  connected  to  an  extension  of  the  bottom  of  the  link,  and  the 
back  end  is  connected  to  the  eccentric,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a 
return  crank  attached   to  the  main  crank-pin  and  set  90   degrees 


GEAR  259 

from  it.  The  link  and  eccentrics  of  the  Stephenson  motion  are 
inside  of  the  engine  frames,  while  the  whole  motion  work  of  the 
Walschaert  gear  is  outside  the  frame,  where  the  parts  are  better 
subject  to  inspection,  lubrication  and  repair.  A  secondary,  or 
modifying,  motion,  called  lead,  must  be  imparted  to  the  valve, 
and  this  is  secured  in  the  Stephenson  gear  by  advancing  the 
position  of*  the  eccentrics  on  the  axle,  while  by  the  Walschaert 
method  the  location  of  the  eccentric  remains  unchanged  and 
lead  is  secured  by  the  more  accurate  and  stable  method  of  a 
device  called  the  combination  lever.  The  lower  end  of  the  com- 
bination lever  has  a  link-bar  connection  with  the  cross-head,  and 
~  at  its  upper  end  and  at  an  intermediate  point  on  the  lever  closely 
adjoining  are  two  other  connections,  the  valve-stem  and  the 
radius  rod.  The  valve-stem  works  on  a  guiding  slide  and  sup- 
ports the  weight  of  the  combination  lever,  carrying  it  in  true 
position,  while  the  back  end  of  the  radius  rod  is  attached  to  the 
link'block.  The  lifting-arm  of  the  reversing  gear  has  its  sus- 
pension bar  attached  to  the  radius  rod,  which  it  raises  and  lowers 
instead  of  shifting  the  link,  as  the  reverse  lever  is  thrown  for- 
ward and  back,  and  this  changing  of  the  location  of  the  radius 
rod  and  link-block  in  the  slot  of  the  link  either  reverses  the  mo- 
tion or  shortens  or  lengthens  the  period  of  steam  admission  to  the 
cylinders. 

Q.  8. — How  many  general  types  of  valve  are  there  in  loco- 
motive use? 

A. — There  are  many  styles  of  valves,  but  all  are  embraced 
within  two  general  types— slide  valves  and  piston  valves.  A 
slide  valve,  or  "D-slide  valve,"  so  called  because  in  sectional 
side  elevation  it  has  the  appearance  of  a  reclining  capital  letter 
D,  has  a  flat,  plane  face  bearing  on  its  seat,  and  the  admission 
of  steam  to  the  ports  to  each  end  of  the  cylinder  is  past  the 
ends  of  the  valve,  while  the  exhaust  is  through  the  inside  cavity, 
and  a  slide-valve  is,  therefore,  of  "outside  admission."  If 
the  total  area  of  the  top  side  of  the  slide-valve  was  exposed  to 
the  full  steam  pressure  from  the  boiler,  it  would  cause  the  valve 
to  work  very  hard  on  account  of  its  high  frictional  resistance,  but 
slide-valves  now  have  a  large  portion  of  the  steam  area  balanced, 
causing  them  to  work  quite  easily.  Piston  valves  are  in  the 
form  of  a  spool,  the  wide  ends  being  really  pistons  similar  to  the 
main  piston  iu  the  cylinder  joined  by  the  narrower  tube  of  the 
•spool,  which  is  generally  hollow,  so  that  both  ends  of  the  valve 
chamber  are  in  communication  with  each  other,  although  some 
motive  power  officials  use  closed  spools,  as  both  ends  of  the  valve 
chamber  are  otherwise  in  communication  with  each  other.  When 
piston  valves  are  of  outside  admission  the  live  boiler  pressure 
occupies  the  ends  of  the  valve  chamber  and  the  intermediate 
space  between  the  pistons  is  open  to  the  exhaust,  so  that  the 
action  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  D-slide  valve.  But  most  piston 
valves   are   of   inside   admission,   wherein   the   ends   of  the   valve 


260  VALVE 

chamber  are  open  to  the  exhaust  nml  the  middle  space  holds  the 
live  steam:  this  balances  the  valve,  fore  and  aft,  perfectly,  as 
the  areas  inside  of  the  valve  are  equal,  while  outside  end  pres- 
sures on  the  valve  are  unequal,  due  to  the  space  occupied  by 
the  valve-stem;  with  inside  admission,  also,  there  is  no  pressure 
against  the  valve-stem  packing,  except  that  of  the  exhaust  steam. 
When  outside  admission  valves  start  to  open  an  admission  port  to 
the  cylinder,  either  regularl}-  or  for  lead,  they  must  move  in  the 
same  direction  the  piston  will  move,  while  an  inside  admission 
valve  must  go  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  resulting  travel 
of  the  piston,  so  that  the  live  steam  can  pass  from  the  inside  of 
the  valve  to  the  admission  port;  and  while  it  is  doing  this  the 
port  from  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder  is  open  to  the  oppo- 
site end  of  the  valve  chamber  and  the  exhaust. 

Q.  9. — What  is  the  theoretical  position  of  the  valve  in  relation 
to  the  piston,  with  either  of  the  common  types  of  locomotive 
valve  gear? 

A. — With  outside  admission  the  valve  is  always  one-fourth  of 
a  cycle  of  motion,  or  double  stroke,  ahead  of  the  piston;  inside 
admission  valves  follow  the  piston  by  that  distance. 

Q.  10. — What  is  meant  by  direct  or  indirect  valve  motion? 

A. — Valve  motion  is  direct  when  thei'e  is  no  reversion  in  the 
line  of  motion  between  the  eccentric  and  valve;  indirect  when 
there  is  such  reversion,  as  by  the  double  rocker-arms  of  the 
Stephenson  link  motion,  etc. 

Q.  11.— What  is  lead? 

A.— It  has  been  stated  that  a  valve  of  outside  admission  should 
travel  one-fourth  of  a  cycle  in  advance  of  the  piston,  and  to 
obtain  this  result  with  direct  motion  the  eccentric  that  actuates 
the  valve  must  be  located  at  a  point  on  the  axle,  or  wheel,  just 
90  degrees  ahead  of  the  main  crank-pin — in  respect  to  the  direc- 
tion in  which  the  engine  is  to  run  under  the  influence  of  that 
eccentric — and  with  indirect  motion  the  location  of  the  eccentric 
is  90  degrees  behind  the  crank-pin;  but,  with  the  eccentric  so 
placed,  when  the  crank-pin  was  on  either  dead  center,  at  the 
beginning  of  a  stroke — the  valve  would  be  exactly  centered  on 
its  seat  with  both  steam  admission  ports  widely  covered — 
"widely,"  for  the  valve  is  considerably  longer  than  the  distance 
between  the  outer  edges  of  the  two  admis.sion  ports — and  as  the 
wheels  began  to  turn  from  the  action  of  the  engine  on  the  other 
side  the  piston  on  this  side  would  have  been  carried  some  distance 
in  the  cylinder  before  the  valve  would  have  moved  far  enough 
to  uncover  the  admission  port.  In  common  practice,  however,  an 
alteration  is  effected  in  the  gear  whereby  the  valve — of  either 
inside  or  outside  admission — is  advanced  slightly  further  than  its 
theoretical  position,  with  the  result  that  as  the  piston  is  uearing 
the  end  of  its  stroke,  in  cither  direction,  the  admission  port  will 
start  to  open.  This  gives  a  preadmission  of  steam  against  the 
piston   that   is   expected   to    cushion   the   sudden   stoppage   of   the 


GEAR  261 

motion  work,  and  to  provide  a  full  opening  for  steam  admission 
earlier  in  the  course  of  tlie  piston 's  stroke.  This  preliminary 
opening  of  the  admission  ports  is  referred  to  as  the  lead. 

Q.  12. — Does  lead  have  any  further  effects  than  those  just 
stated? 

A. — Yes;  all  of  the  regular  events  of  the  valve  are  hastened, 
and  while  steam  will  be  admitted  to  the  cylinder  earlier  m  the 
course  of  the  piston  's  stroke,  it  will  be  closed  off  correspondingly 
earlier;  there  is  nothing  in  the  matter  of  lead  that  can  make  the 
steam  push  against  the  piston  during  a  longer  part  of  the  stroke 
than  it  would  if  lead  were  not  present ;  in  either  case  steam 
is  admitted  to  the  cylinder  during  the  time  that  the  crank  is 
describing  a  certain  number  of  degrees  on  the  wheel 's  circle, 
and  lead  brings  those  degrees  of  force  back  to  a  point  where  the 
crank  is  ineffective — the  dead  center — with  a  consequent  loss 
of  power.  Lead  also  causes  an  earlier  closing  of  the  exhaust, 
which  in  turn  creates  an  undesirably  high  degree  of  compression 
between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  head  toward  which  it  is 
advancing. 

Q.  13. — Does  not  compression  take  place  even  though  the  valve 
should   not   be  advanced   for   the   purpose   of   securing  lead? 

A. — Yes,  with  any  valve  having  lap,  if  it  should  be  exactly 
central  on  its  seat  when  the  piston  has  arrived  at  the  end  of  its 
stroke,  there  would  be  compression,  for  the  reason  that  as  the 
piston  is  nearing  the  end  of  the  cylinder  the  valve  is  commencing 
to  cover  the  exhaust  opening,  and  before  the  piston  has  com- 
pleted its  stroke  the  exhaust  is  so  strictured  by  the  constantly 
lessening  area  of  opening  that  even  if  the  exhaust  port  is  not 
entirely  closed  when  the  valve  is  on  center  there  will  be  a  certain 
amount  of  compression  between  the  piston  and  cylinder  head. 
But  with  the  mere  absence  of  lead  opening  of  the  admission 
port  there  will  be  a  considerable  amount  of  compression,  for 
after  the  exhaust  has  closed  the  valve  will  have  to  travel  the 
distance  of  its  lap  before  the  admission  port  is  edge-and-edge 
with  the  valve,  and  while  the  valve  is  doing  this  distance  the 
piston  is  moving  through  an  equal  proportion  of  its  stroke,  but 
toward  the  finish,  with  the  exhaust  port  covered.  So,  in  almost 
any  conceivable  case  there  is  enough  back  pressure  toward  the 
finish  of  the  piston's  stroke  to  cushion  its  stop  and  the  sudden 
reversal  of  the  motion  work,  without  the  pre-admission  of  live 
steam  as  lead  for  that  purpose. 

Q.  14. — What  is  it  that  causes  this  inevitable  compression? 

A. — It  is  due  to  the  lap  of  the  valve. 

Q.  15.— What  is  the  lap  of  the  valve? 

A. — As  stated  before,  when  the  valve  is  centered  exactly  on 
its  seat  its  front  and  back  edges  extend  beyond  the  outside 
edges  of  the  admission  ports,  and  the  distance  that  the  valve 
so  "overlaps"  the  ports  is  called  the  outside,  or  steam,  lap,  this 
with    outside    admission    valves;    with    any    kind    of    valve    it    is 


262  VALVE 

the  distance  the  valve  must  be  moved  from  an  exactly  central 
position  on  its  seat  until  the  admission  port  starts  to  open.  With 
inside  admission  valves  the  steam  lap  is  to  the  inside;  the  inner 
edges  of  the  valve  pistons  overlap  the  admission  ports  by  the 
same  distance  as  do  the  outer  edges  of  a  slide-valve  of  the  same 
moments.  The  expansive  strength  of  steam  could  not  be  obtained 
in  an  engine  cylinder  if  its  valve  was  without  lap,  for  the  lap 
of  the  valve  extends  the  time  between  the  completion  of  the 
cut-off  of  steam  admission  to  the  cylinder  and  the  commencement 
of  the  exhaust  opening  from  the  cylinder. 

Q.  16. — Then,  in  order  to  secure  preadmission  of  steam  to  the 
cylinder,  or  lead,  the  valve  must  be  advanced  in  its  direction  of 
travel  a  distance  equal  to  the  lap  plus  the  decided  amount  of 
lead  opening? 

A. — Yes;   this  should  always  be  remembered. 

Q.  17. — What  is  the  method  of  securing  this  valve  advance  with 
the  Stephenson  link  motion? 

A. — It  is  accomplished  by  moving  both  the  "go-ahead"  and 
"back-up"  eccentrics  in  the  proper  direction  on  the  main  shaft, 
or  axle,  as  noted  in  answer  to   question  7. 

Q.  IS. — How  is  lead  obtained  by  the  Walschaert    gear? 

A. — The  device  of  the  combination  lever  is  employed  in  the 
Walschaert  gear  to  produce  the  secondary  motion  of  the  valve 
by  which  it  is  advanced  to  overcome  the  delay  in  its  movement 
due  to  the  lap,  and  also  to  give  the  port  opening  for  lead  when 
such  is  desired;  and  to  do  this  is  the  sole  function  of  the  com- 
bination lever.  While  in  either  type  of  gear  the  motion  of  the 
piston  must  eventually  furnish  every  motion  of  the  valve.  The 
Stephenson  plan  must  change  the  straight-line  motion  derived 
from  the  piston  into  the  circular  motion  of  the  wheel  and  axle, 
and  back  again  to  the  straight-line  motion  of  the  valve  for  each 
of  its  several  functions,  and  this  introduces  errors  impossible  to 
entirely  overcome.  The  Walschaert  gear,  however,  takes  the 
straight-line  motion  of  the  piston  right  at  the  cross-head  and, 
through  the  combination  lever,  as  noted  in  answer  to  question  7, 
a  short,  diverting  motion  is  imparted  to  the  valve-stem  that  most 
accurately  shifts  the  position  of  the  valve  the  required  amount 
for  lead. 

Q.  19. — Then,  if  an  engine  with  the  Walschaert  gear  was 
standing  with  crank-pin  on  the  forward  dead  center,  with  cylinder 
cocks  open,  and  the  throttle  should  be  opened  if  no  steam  should 
blow  from  the  forward  cylinder  cock  it  would  prove  that  this 
engine  had  no  lead  to  the  front  admission  port,  would  it  not? 
And  if  the  valve  gear  was  correctly  set  up,  would  not  the  one 
foregoing  test  prove  the  amount  of  or  absence  of  lead  to  the  back 
admission  port  as  well?  And  would  not  such  test  have  the  same 
result  if  made  with  the  crank  on  either  dead  center? 

A. — Yes  to  each  question,  because  the  combination  lever  gives 
exactly  equal  results  at  the  finish  of  each  stroke  of  the  piston. 


GEAR  263 

Q.  20. — And  if  an  engine  standing  as  suggested  in  question  19 
should  prove  to  have  no  lead  because  no  steam  blew  from  the 
■cylinder  cock,  nvould  it  still  be  necessary  for  a  combination  lever 
to  be  used? 

A. — Yes.  In  the  Walschaert  gear  the  combination  lever  is 
a  necessity  whenever  the  valve  has  any  steam  lap,  and  all  loco- 
motive valves  have. 

Q.  21. — Does  the  amount  of  lead  supplied  by  the  Walschaert 
gear  remain  the  same  at  all  points  of  the  cut-off? 

A. — Yes;  the  lead  is  permanent  for  all  points  of  cut-off,  does 
not   change,   and   can   not   be    changed. 

Q.  22. — In  the  Stephenson  link  motion  does  the  lead  vary? 

A. — It  does.  The  position  of  each  eccentric  is  adjusted  on  the 
axle  to  a  certain  amount  of  lead  when  in  full  gear,  but  as  the 
reverse  lever  is  hooked  up  toward  the  center  the  lead  increases 
in  amount. 

Q.  23. — Are  there  not  different  ideas  held  concerning  the  real 
meaning  of  the  term  "lead"? 

A. — Yes.  Many  enginemen  refer  to  the  shift  in  position  of  the 
Stephenson  eccentrics,  or  the  presence  of  the  Walschaert  com- 
bination lever,  as  simply  for  the  purpose  of  securing  lead,  when, 
as  explained,  the  valve  may  be  set  blind — without  lead — yet  still 
the  valve  should  not  be  centered  with  the  crank-pin  on  a  dead 
center. 

Q.  24. — How  may  it  be  known  from  outward  appearance 
•whether  with  the  Walschaert  gear  a  piston  valve  is  of  inside  or 
outside  admission? 

A. — This  depends  upon  the  individual  design  of  the  reversing 
gear  principally,  but  in  the  strictly  American  style  of  construc- 
tion, whereby  the  radius  rod  is  lowered  when  the  reverse  lever  is 
thrown  forward  and  raised  by  throwing  it  back,  and  assuming 
an  engine  to  be  running  forward,  for  the  sake  of  distinction, 
with  outside  admission  valves  of  either  the  D-slide  or  piston  type, 
the  eccentric  is  located  90  degrees  ahead  of  the  main  crank-pin,  and 
the  valve-stem  is  connected  to  the  upper  end  of  the  combination 
lever,  with  the  radius  rod  connection  to  the  combination  lever 
beneath  it ;  with  inside  admission  valves  the  eccentric  is  located 
90  degrees  behind  the  crank-pin,  and  the  radius  rod  is  connected 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  combination  lever  with  the  valve-stem 
<-onnection  beneath  it. 

Q.  25. — Illustrate  this  principle. 

A. — Note  Figure  2,  the  Mallet  Articulated  Compound  Loco- 
motive built  by  the  American  Locomotive  Company.  Kemember- 
ing  the  information  given  in  the  answer  to  the  last  preceding " 
question,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  forward  ' '  engine ' '  has  a  D-slide 
valve — necessarily  of  outside  admission — with  the  valve-stem  con- 
nected to  the  combination  lever  above  the  radius  rod,  and  the 
eccentric  set  a  "quarter"  ahead  of  the  main  crank-pin.  The 
rearward  engine  has  piston  valves,  and  we  may  know  that  they 


264  VALVE 

are  of  inside  admission  by  reason  of  the  location  of  the  eccentric 
in  its  relation  to  the  crank-pin,  and  the  connections  of  valve-stem 
and  radius  rod  to  tlie  combination  lever  being  opposite  to  the 
arrangonionts  of  tiiose  parts  on  the  forward  engine. 

Q.  L'6. —  In  referring  to  "shorter  cut-oflf, "  and  "hooking-up, " 
do  not  both  expressions  mean  the  same? 

A. — "Shorter  cut-oflf"  is  an  effect  with  "hooking-up"  as  the 
cause.  With  the  Walschaert  gear,  if  the  reverse  should  be  set 
in  either  extreme  end  notch  of  the  quadrant,  it  will  cause  the 
radius  rod  to  be  carried  at  either  the  extreme  upper  or  lower 
end  of  the  link,  thus  giving  the  valve  its  longest  travel  and 
admitting  steam  to  the  cylinder  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
piston's  stroke.  Hooking-up  means  changing  the  position  of 
the  reverse  lever  to  a  notch  nearer  the  center  of  the  quadrant  in 
either  forward  or  back  gear,  and  as  this  brings  the  radius  rod 
and  link-block  correspondingly  nearer  to  the  center  of  the  link, 
a  shorter  motion  is  imparted  to  the  valve,  and  the  admission  of 
steam  to  the  cylinder  and  the  exhaust  therefrom  are  cut  off — 
cease — at  earlier  periods  in  the  course  of  the  piston 's  stroke. 
Hence  the  expression  of  ' '  shorter  cut-oflf. ' ' 

Q.  27. — Using  a  diagram  in  side  elevation,  give  a  description 
of  the  operation  of  the  Walschaert  gear  in  connection  with  a 
valve  of  outside  admission  during  the  course  of  one  single 
stroke  of  the  piston, 

A. — With  reference  to  Fig.  3 — a  Baldwin  engine  with  the 
Walschaert  gear  and  outside  admission  valves  of  the  D-slide 
pattern — the  crank-pins  are  on  the  front  dead  center  and  piston 
at  the  extreme  forward  end  of  the  cylinder  just  ready  to  begin 
its  backward  stroke.  In  referring  to  the  positions  of  the  crank- 
pin  and  single  eccentric  and  their  relations  toward  each  other, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  we  assume  the  engine  to  be  running 
forward,  always;  in  Fig.  3,  then,  the  eccentric  is  a  "quarter" 
or  one-fourth  turn  ahead  of  the  crank-pin  as  the  wheel  turns  for- 
ward, which  is  as  it  should  be  with  outside  admission  valves. 
The  eccentric,  being  now  on  a  vertical  line  through  the  center 
of  the  wheel,  holds  the  link  in  a  vertical  position  and  if  the 
reverse  lever  was  moved  from  the  forward  notch,  where  it  now 
stands,  clear  over  to  the  farthest  back-up  notch,  it  would  raise 
the  back  end  of  the  radius  rod  and  link-block  from  the  lower 
to  the  upper  end  of  the  link,  and  the  radius  rod  would  assume 
m  turn  the  dififerent  angles  represented  by  the  dotted  lines,  but 
the  position  of  its  forward  end  would  not  be  altered  the  slightest 
because  the  link  curves  toward  the  fulcrum  of  the  radius  rod, 
and  its  radius  is  the  same  as  the  length 'of  the  radius  rod;  in 
other  words,  the  curve  of  the  link  is  the  same  as  if  it  was  a 
section  of  the  rim  of  a  wheel  of  which  the  radius  rod  is  a  spoke 
with  the  pin  in  its  forward  end  as  the  hub  center.  When  the 
eccentric  is  just  90  degrees  from  the  crank-pin  the  valve  will  be 
exactly  centered   on   its   seat  if  there  should   be   no  other  device 


GEAR 


265 


employed  fur  advancing  it  to  secure  lead;  the  combination  lever 
is  introduced  for  that  purpose,  but  let  us  remove  it  and  note  the  ^ 
result :  Imagine/  that  we  remove  the  pin  from  the  lower  end  of 
the  combination  lever,  thus  disconnecting  it  from  the  cross-head, 
and  draw  it  to  the  right;  the  pin,  i,  will  remain  fixed  in  posi- 
tion and  fulcrum  the  motion  of  the  combination  lever,  the  upper 
end  of  which  will  move  to  the  left  with  its  slide  from  which  it 
is  suspended ;  this  slidf  is  connected  to  the  end  of  the  valve-stem, 
acting  as  a  cross-head  for  it,  and  when  the  combination  lever  has 
been  drawn  to  a  vertical  position — proven  by  the  pins  i  and  n 
near  its  upper  end,  being  on  the  same  vertical  line — the  valve  will 
be  placed  at  the  true  center  of  its  travel  with  both  steam  ports 
overcovered  by  the  amount  of  outside  lap.  Now  we  will  take  out 
pins  i  and  n,  thus  entirely  disconnecting  the  combination  lever, 
and   we   find   that   by   raising   the   front   end    of   the   radius   rod 


Fig.  3.    Walschaert    Motion  with  B-Slide  Valve. 

its  pin  hole,  i,  will  just  match  in  position  with  the  pin  hole  n  in 
the  valve-stem  slide  so  we  will  insert  a  pin  to  join  them,  and 
having  the  radius  rod  and  valve-stem  thus  directly  connected 
together,  there  is  a  direct  and  unbroTien  line  of  motion  from  the 
link-block  to  the  valve;  as  the  crank-pin  stands,  on  a  dead  center, 
the  valve  would  be  at  its  center  of  motion  and  we  have  an  engine 
that  would  run,  but  in  which  the  piston  would  not  begin  to  exert 
its  power  until  it  had  been  carried  some  distance  in  its  stroke; 
but  the  maximum  force  of  the  piston  would  be  exerted  at  the 
time  when  the  crank  was  exerting  its   greatest   leverage. 

The  plate  shows  a  vertical  line  drawn  through  the  center  of 
the  cylinder  and  valve  seat,  and  a  similar  line  through  the  exact 
center  of  the  valve,  and  taking  this  engine  as  it  stands,  e.xcept 
for  the   change   made   by   removing  the   combination  lever,   those 


266  VALVE 

two  vertical  lines  would  exactly  coincide;  the  valve  lias  no 
advance  whatever — the  lap  is  positive — and  in  replacing  the 
combination  lever  the  method  of  producing  lead  will  be  demon- 
strated. 

The  engine  is  shown  with  the  main  rod  removed,  so  as  it  will 
not  affect  the  crank  we  will  push  the  cross-head  back  until  the 
piston  is  at  the  center  of  the  cylinder — on  the  vertical  line  drawn 
through  it — and  we  can  then  reconnect  the  combination  lever 
without  changing  the  position  of  the  valve,  because  the  piston 
and  valve  are  both  centered,  and  when  that  condition  exists  the 
combination  lever  is  vertical,  in  regard  to  its  upper  two  connec- 
tions. After  the  radius  rod  and  valve-stem  have  been  discon- 
nected from  each  other  and  reconnected  to  the  combination  lever, 
we  will  push  the  cross-head  forward  again,  and  as  it  advances 
the  valve  will  be  pulled  in  the  opposite  direction  by  the  angle 
which  the  combination  lever  is  assuming  until  when  the  piston  has 
reached  the  finish  of  its  forward  stroke  we  find  that  the  valve 
has  uncovered  the  front  admission  port  by  a  very  slight  amount 
for  the  lead  opening,  and  it  has  been  done  without  any  movement 
of  the  eccentric  or  link,  showing  that  the  position  of  the  eccentric 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  lead.  Vertical  lines  through  the  two 
pins  of  the  combination  lever  connecting  it  with  the  radius  rod 
and  valve-stem  are  now  exactly  the  same  distance  apart  as  are 
the  parallel  lines  through  the  valve  and  seat,  showing  that  the 
amount  of  advance  given  to  the  valve  when  the  crank  is  on  the 
dead  center  is  governed  by  the  angle  assumed  by  the  combina- 
tion lever  at  that  time,  and  its  length  between  the  upper  pins 
connecting  it  with  the  radius  rod  and  valve-stem,  for  the  dis- 
tance between  the  vertical  lines  through  valve  and  seat,  and 
through  the  pins  of  the  combination  lever  is  exactly  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  lap  of  the  valve  plus  the  lead. 

When  we  had  the  combination  lever  standing  vertically  and 
the  valve  and  piston  at  the  centers  of  their  travels,  if  we  had 
drawn  the  cross-head  backward  to  the  end  of  its  stroke  the  back 
admission  port  would  have  been  uncovered  for  lead,  and  the 
valve  would  have  been  off  center  exactly  the  same  distance  as 
shown  in  the  plate,  but  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  position  of  the  reverse  lever  would  have  had  no  effect 
on  the  valve  movements  that  we  have  been  supposing,  for  with 
the  eccentric  directly  below  or  above  the  center  of  the  wheel, 
the  link  will  be  held  in  a  position  in  which  the  link-block  can 
travel  from  one  end  of  the  link  slot  to  the  other  without  chang- 
ing the  location  of  the  front  end  of  the  radius  rod. 

Let  us  assume  that  the  main  rod  is  coupled  up.  We  will  place 
the  reverse  lever  in  the  center  notch  of  the  quadrant  and  this 
brings  the  radius  rod  up  to  the  horizontal  position  shown  in 
dotted  line,  and  the  link-block  pin  will  coincide  with  the  fulcrum 
pin,  or  trunnion,  at  the  center  of  the  link,  and  from  which  it  is 
suspended;    now,   if  the  engine   should  be   pushed,   or   its  wheels 


GEAR  267 

made  to  revolve  in  either  direction,  the  eccentric  -n-ould  give  the 
full  motion  to  the  link — which  it  does  regardless  of  the  position 
in  which  the  reverse  lever  is  carried — but  the  link-block  being 
at  the  center  of  the  link  is  given  no  motion,  and  therefore  it 
imparts  none  through  the  radius  rod  to  the  combination  lever 
and  valve.  The  valve  will  be  given  its  short  travel,  however, 
received  from  the  cross-head,  and  always  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  the  piston 's  travel.  Whether  the  wheels  turn  forward  or 
backward  the  result  is  the  same.  As  the  piston  reaches  either 
end  of  the  cylinder  the  combination  lever  has  drawn  the  valve 
just  far  enough  in  the  opposite  direction  to  uncover  the  admis- 
sion port  the  requisite  distance  for  lead. 

Now  drop  the  reverse  lever  ahead,  and,  with  the  gear  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  with  the  addition  of  having  the  main  rod  up  in 
position,  which  we  will  assume,  we  start  the  engine  forward 
under  her  own  steam;  the  starting,  however,  must  be  done  by 
the  piston  on  the  other  side  of  the  engine,  for  the  admission 
of  steam  to  the  visible  cylinder  can  exert  no  turning  power  to 
the  wheels  while  the  crank-pin  is  on  the  center;  as  the  crank 
leaves  the  front  center  its  motion  is  downward,  rather  than 
backward,  and  the  straight-line  motion  of  the  cross-head  and 
piston  will  be  to  move  backward  very  slowly  at  this  time,  with 
a  consequent  delay  in  the  motion  of  the  lower  end  of  the  com- 
bination lever.  Just  at  this  time,  though,  the  eccentric  is  making 
its  quickest  move,  the  lower  end  of  the  link  is  carried  backward, 
drawing  the  upper  end  of  the  combination  lever,  and  if  the 
valve — practically  a  straight  line  of  motion,  and  the  fast  motion 
of  the  eccentric  is  imparted  to  the  valve,  thus  giving  the  for- 
ward admission  port  a  quick,  full  opening  at  just  the  time  the 
piston  has  started  to  enter,  what  should  be  the  most  effective 
part  of  its  stroke — when  the  crank-pin  is  nearing  the  "quarter." 
The  starting  angle  of  the  combination  lever  is  maintained  until 
the  piston  has  made  about  one-fourth  of  its  stroke,  when  at  that 
time  the  crank-pin  is  starting  on  the  fastest  part  of  its  circular 
path  of  motion — past  the  quarter — and  the  motion  of  the  lower 
end  of  the  combination  lever  is  accelerated  while  its  upper  end 
is  retarded  by  the  delay  of  the  eccentric  in  approaching  and 
passing  the  end  of  its  backward  stroke ;  this  causes  the  com- 
bination lever  to  begin  straightening  up  toward  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, and  as  its  motion  lessens  with  its  angle  the  valve  stops  and 
slowly  begins  a  forward  movement,  traveling  faster  as  the  eccen- 
tric gets  well  started  on  its  forward  stroke,  and  after  the  crank- 
pin  has  passed  the  lower  quarter  of  the  combination  lever  begins 
to  incline  itself  over  in  a  position  opposite  to  that  in  the  plate. 
As  the  crank-pin  finally  approaches  the  end  of  its  single  stroke 
— the  back  center — the  eccentric  will  be  moving  rapidly  forward 
toward  its  ' '  upper  quarter, ' '  which,  in  connection  with  the  fast 
increasing  angle  of  the  combination  lever,  gives  such  a  quicken- 
ing forward  motion  to   the  valve  that  after  the  steam  has  been 


268  YALyE. 

cut  off  from  the  forward  admission  port  its  opening  to  the 
exhaust  and  the  lead  opening  to  the  back  admission  port  follow 
in  most  rapid  sequence.  Thus,  at  the  completion  of  a  single 
etroke  of  the  piston  all  parts  of  the  motion  work  will  be  in 
positions  exactly  opposite  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  3,  except 
that  the  link  will  have  returned  to  the  same  position  as  in  the 
plate,  for  the  eccentric  will  again  be  on  a  vertical  line  through 
the  center  of  the  axle,  although  above,  instead  of  below,  the 
center. 

Q.  28. — Without  detail,  and  in  fewer  words,  simply  relate  the 
changes  occurring  in  the  Walschaert  valve  gear  during  a  stroke 
of  the  piston. 

A. — On  the  front  center  the  gear  is  as  shown  in  Fig.  3;  with 
the  crank  on  back  center  the  eccentric  is  nearly  raised  from  below 
to  above  the  hub  center  without  any  change  in  the  point  of 
location  of  the  forward  end  of  the  eccentric  rod,  nor  link;  the 
location  of  the  piston  being  changed  from  the  front  to  the  back 
end  of  the  cylinder,  the  cross-head  has  carried  the  lower  end 
of  the  combination  lever  the  same  distance  back  of  its  vertical 
line  that  the  plate  shows  it  ahead  of  that  line,  with  the  result 
that  the  upper  end  of  the  lever  will  be  thrown  the  same  distance 
ahead  of  its  central  perpendicular  that  the  plate  shows  it  back 
of  that  line,  thus  moving  the  valve  forward  of  the  central 
position  in  which  the  eccentric  has  placed  it,  the  same  distance 
that  the  plate  shows  it  back  of  that  position,  and  this  will  give 
precisely  the  same  amount  of  lead  opening  to  the  back  admis- 
sion port  that  the  plate  shows  is  given  to  the  forward  port. 

Q.  29. — The  Stephenson  link  motion  may  be  either  "direct" 
or  "indirect."     How  about  the  Walchaert    gear  in  this  respect? 

A. — The  Walschaert  gear  is  of  direct  motion  when  the  reverse 
lever  is  forward  of  the  central  notch  of  the  quadrant  and  the 
radius  rod  below  the  center  of  the  link,  for  there  is  then  a 
direct,  or  unreversed,  line  of  motion  from  eccentric  to  valve, 
the  link  acting  as  a  single-arm  rocker;  it  is  of  indirect  motion 
with  the  reverse  lever  in  any  back-up  notch,  as  then  the  radius 
rod  is  carried  above  the  link  center  and  the  motion  produced 
by  the  eccentric  and  transmitted  to  the  lower  end  of  the  link 
by  the  eccentric  rod  is  reversed  by  the  oscillation  of  the  link,  and 
the  motion  it  delivers  to  the  radius  rod  and  valve  is  in  an  opposite 
direction,  therefore,  to  that  received  from  the  eccentric,  the  link 
in  the  latter  case  ac^ting  as  a  double-arm  rocker. 

Q.  30. — Will  the  eccentric  of  the  Walschaert  gear  give  any 
movement  to  the  valve  when  the  engine  is  running  if  the  reverse 
lever  is  standing  in  the  center  notch  of  the   quadrant? 

A. — No,  for  then  the  radius  rod  is  being  carried  at  the  center 
of  the  link  and  will  receive  no  motion;  but  the  valve  will  have 
the  short  travel  derived  from  the  cross-head,  through  the  com- 
bination lever,  a  travel  equal  to  twice  the  length  of  the  valve's 
lap  and  lead  added  together.     The  pin  in  the  forward  end  of  the 


GEAR 


269 


radius  rod  at  this  time  acts  as  a  fixed  fulcrum  to  the  combina- 
tion  lever  which  is  receiving  no  motion  except  from  the  cross- 
head 

Q.  31. —  vYhen  the  reverse  lever  is  forward  of  the  center  of  the 
quadrant  the  radius  rod  is  working  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
link,  and  with  the  lever  back  of  the  center  the  radius  rod  is  in 
the  upper  half  of  the  link — is  it  not? 

A. — Such  is  common  American  practice;  but  if  it  will  sim- 
plify the  reversing  gear  the  radius  rod  may  work  above  the  link 
center  in  the  forward  motion,  and  many  European  engines  with 
Walschaert  gear  are  so  designed.  Fig.  4  is  a  reproduction  of 
such  construction  from  Auchincloss'  book  on  Valve  Motion,  and 
represents  an  engine  running  forward ;  the  reversing — or  tumbling 
— shaft  is  located,  as  with  old-time  Rogers  engines,  below  the 
link,   thus    lessening   the    "slip"    of   the    link-block   while   it   is 


ECCOITHIC  goo 


CtNrRU.  LINE  or  MOTION 


•     «*  REVERStHO  SHAFT 


Fig.  4.     Walschaert     Motion  with  Radius  Rod  Above  Link  Center 
in  Forward  Gear. 


working  in  the  upper  half  of  the  link,  which  is  forward  gear 
in  this  case.  It  will  be  noted  from  the  plate  that  the  only  other 
alteration  in  the  gear  made  necessary  in  changing  the  position 
of  the  radius  rod  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  link  is  simply  to 
change  the  location  of  the  eccentric  from  90  degrees  ahead  of 
the  crank-pin  to  90  degrees  behind  it,  with  outside  admission 
valves  as  in  the  plate,  or  vice  versa  with  valves  of  inside  admis- 
sion. Of  course  the  reversing  gear  must  be  designed  so  that 
the  reverse  lever  will  be  forward  of  the  center  notch  of  the 
quadrant  when  it  has  raised  the  radius  rod  above  the  link  center. 

Q.  32. — Is  it  easier  to  secure  equal  cut-off  of  the  admission 
of  steam  to  each  end  of  the  cylinder  with  the  Walschaert'  gear 
than  with  the  Stephenson  link  motion? 

A. — Yes;  in  the  Walschaert  gear  the  opening  and  closing 
moments  of  the  ports  are  accomplished  with  equal  precision  iii 
each   direction   of   the   valve's   travel    and   can   not   be   otherwise. 


270  VALVE 

for,  as  the  piston  moves  in  either  direction  from  the  center  of 
the  cylinder  it  causes  the  combination  lever  to  move  the  valve 
in  an  opposite  direction  with  outside  admission,  and  in  the  same 
direction  with  inside  admission  valves  of  the  piston  type,  but  in 
either  case  the  distance  the  valve  is  moved  exactly  equals  a 
certain  and  fixed  proportion  of  the  distance  of  the  piston 's 
travel,  this  being  the  leverage  proportions  of  the  combination 
lever. 

Q.  33. — The  curve  of  the  Stephenson  link  is  from  a  backward 
radius.  Why  is  the  curve  of  the  Walschaert  link  on  a  radius 
from  ahead? 

A. — As  the  radius  rod,  by  its  attachment  to  the  link-block, 
may  be  carried  at  any  point  in  the  link  according  to  the  direc- 
tion of  motion  and  the  point  of  cut-off,  raising  or  lowering  the 
radius  rod  from  the  center  would  put  it  at  an  untrue  angle  with 
the  link  if  the  curve  of  the  -link  were  not  toward  the  radius 
rod  and  of  a  radius  equal  to  the  length  of  the  radius  rod  from 
its  pin  connection  with-  the  combination  lever  to  the  link-block 
pin.  Setting  the  engine  on  either  dead  center — as  in  Fig.  3, 
for  instance — the  reverse  lever  may  be  brought  from  one  end  of 
its  sector  clear  over  to  the  farthest  opposite  notch  without 
shifting  the  position  of  the  valve  in  the  slightest  degree  if  all 
parts  of  the  motion  work  have  been  correctly  designed  and 
properly  set  up,  for,  while  the  link-block  is  being  moved  from  one 
end  of  the  link  slot  to  the  other  it  is  at  all  times  equidistant 
from  a  fixed  point  represented  by  the  location  of  the  pin  con- 
necting the  radius  rod  and  combination  lever  when  the  radius 
rod  is  at  the  center  of  the  link ;  to  enable  this  to  occur,  the 
radius  and  direction  of  curve  of  the  link  must  conform  to  the 
radius  rod;  and  it  is. called  the  radius  rod  because  its  length 
determines  the  radius  of  the  link's  curvature. 

Q.   34. — Describe   the  Walschaert     link  in   detail. 

A. — The  reversing  links  used  in  connection  with  the  Walschaert 
gear  by  different  engine  builders,  and  on  locomotives  of  different 
types,  vary  somewhat  in  design;  some  are  open  links  nearly  like 
those  of  the  Stephenson  link  motion,  but  generally  they  are  very 
similar  to  the  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  5,  which  is  engraved  from 
a  blue-print  furnished  by  the  American  Locomotive  Company. 

The  piece  that  forms  the  link  proper,  and  has  the  slot  that 
holds  the  link-block,  is  extended  down  much  further  than  the  slot 
in  order  to  take  the  eccentric  rod  connection  as  fiear  as  possible 
to  the  horizontal  line  through  the  wheel's  center,  this  lower 
extension  forming  the  link  foot;  the  link  piece  is  shown  in  side 
elevation  A  as  la,  and  in  end  view  B  as  Ih ;  it  is  forged  from 
wrought  iron  and  ease-hardened.  The  frame  that  carries  the 
link  piece  is  composed  of  the  two  bracket  pieces  Sb,  in  view  B, 
one  on  each  side,  with  their  ends  bolted  to  the  link  piece;  they 
are  of  cast  steel,  each  including  the  fulcrum  pin  3b  by  which 
the  link  is  suspended  and  which  are  designed  to  be  even  with 


GEAR 


271 


the  center  of  the  link  slot,  both  vertically  and  horizontally;  a 
case-hardened  bushing  of  wrought  iron  is  pressed  on  to  these 
link  trunnions,  or  fulcrum  pins,  in  order  to  prevent  any  lost 
motion  from  wear.  The  pin  hole  in  the  link  foot,  4a,  4b,  to  which 
the  eccentric  rod  is  connected,  is  also  fitted  with  a  wrought  iron, 
case-hardened  bushing.  In  view  A,  the  slot  in  the  link  piece  in 
which  the  link-block  operates  is  in  dotted  outline  as  indicated  by 


D 

Fig.  5.    The  Walschaert    Link. 

6a,  6a,  and  the  link-block  is  shown  in  the  views  C  and  D;  C  is 
the  side  of  the  block  and  as  it  would  appear  if  raised  to  its  posi- 
tion in  the  link  slot  in  the  view  A,  and  the  edge  of  the  block  is 
shown  in  view  Z)  as  it  would  lie  in  the  link  turned  to  the  end- 
wise view  B,  and  when  in  place  in  the  slot  the  sides  'of  the  block 
are  almost  flush  with  the  sides  of  the  link  piece  to  afford  room 


272  VALVE 

for  the  jaws  of  the  radius  rod  to  pass  inside  of  the  brackets; 
the  hole  8c,  8d,  is  for  the  pin  by  which  the  radius  rod  is  attached 
to  the  link-block,  and  this  hole,  like  the  others,  is  also  bushed 
with  case-hardened  wrought  iron. 

A  plan  of  the  gear  would  show  the  radius  rod  lying  on  the 
same  longitudinal  line  as  the  link;  the  back  end  of  the  radius 
rod  is  forked,  a  jaw  passing  on  each  side  of  the  link  piece  and 
inside  of  the  carrying  bracket  piece,  the  jaws  embracing  the  link- 
block  ;  there  is  a  pin  hole  through  each  jaw  of  the  radius  rod 
coinciding  with  the  hole  8c,  8d,  of  the  link-block  for  the  pin 
that  connects  them  together,  and  these  holes  are  bushed  similarly 
"to  the  other  pin  holes  as  described;  but  there  will  be  no  wear  to 
the  pin  holes  through  the  radius  rod  jaws  for  the  reason  that  a 
keying  bolt  runs  down  through  a  vertical  hole  in  each  jaw  and 
through  the  link-block-pin,  thus  holding  the  pin  rigid  with  the  /a- 
dius  rod,  the  pin  turning  only  in  the  hole  through  the  link-block. 
The  openings  at  7a,  Ih,  in  the  outer  link  bracket  piece  beside 
providing  means  for  direct  oiling  of  the  bearing  surfaces  of  link- 
block  and  link  may  also  be  used  as  an  aperture  through  which  the 
link-block  pin  can  be  removed. 

The  link  piece  contains  an  oil  well,  5a,  Sh,  in  the  top  end,  and 
another  similar  one,  4a,  4b,  in  the  link-foot,  each  with  a  small 
feed  hole  drilled  out  at  the  bottom  and  the  top  ends  threaded 
to  take  a  screw  cap  nut,  for  continuous  lubrication  of  the  faces 
of  the  link-block  and  eccentric  rod  pin.  An  oil  well  of  the  same 
kind  is  also  provided  in  the  top  of  the  link-block,  to  lubricate  the 
radius  rod  pin. 

It  is  by  reason  of  the  connection  pins  working  in  holes  that  are 
fitted  with  practically  non-wearing  bushings,  easy  to  oil,  that 
no  lost  motion  of  any  moment  develops  in  the  Walschaert. 
valve  gear. 

Q.  35. — Is  the  eccentric  rod  always  connected  directly  with 
the  link  foot? 

A. — No,  but  it  must  have  the  same  effect.  Sometimes  the 
valve  chest  lies  so  far  in  toward  the  center  line  of  the  engine 
that  the  link,  to  be  in  line,  is  also  too  far  in  for  direct  connection 
with  the  eccentric  rod,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  common  for  the 
link  to  have  a  supporting  and  carrying  fulcrum  pin  on  but  one 
side — the  outer  side — and  this  fulcrum  pin  attached  to  the  outer 
link  bracket  is  lengthened  to  form  a  shaft  working  in  a  journal- 
box,  and  extended  outward  far  enough  to  have  an  arm  attached 
to  it  in  line  with  the  eccentric  rod ;  this  arm  reaches  down  as 
much  farther  than  the  lower  end  of  the  link  as  the  link  foot 
would  extend,  for  the  connection  of  the  eccentric  rod.  When 
this  method  of  connecting  the  eccentric  rod  with  the  link  is 
employed  there  is,  of  course,  no  link  foot,  the  link  having 
exactly  the   same   lengths  above  and   below   its   central   trunnion. 

Q.  36. — The  action  of  the  Walschaert  gear  in  supplying  the 
motion  to  a  valve   of  outside  admission  has   been   explained  in 


GEAR 


27.'5 


answer  to  Question  ,27,  and  with  reference  to  Fig.  3.  Now 
explain  the  difference  in  the  set-up  and  operation  of  the  gear 
as  applied  to  an  engine  with  valves  of  inside  admission. 

A. — Fig.  6  represents  the  latter  type— piston  valve  of  inside 
admission;  the  reverse  lever  being  in  the  center  notch  of  the 
quadrant,  the  radius  rod  is  in  position  at  the  exact  center  of  the 
link  just  the  same  as  though  the  valve  were  of  outside  admis- 
eion,  and  this  places  the  upper  end  of  the  combination  lever — 
to  which  the  radius  rod  is  connected — at  its  point  of  mid-throw, 
while  the  piston  being  precisely  in  the  center  of  the  cylinder  its 
cross-head  fixes  the  lower  end  of  the  combination  lever  at  its 
point  of  mid-travel,  and  these  combined  influences  give  the  com- 


Fig.   6.     Walschaert  Gear  with  Piston  Valves  of  Inside  Admission. 


bination  lever  a  jjosition  which  is  plumb  perpendicular,  both  its 
upper  pin  holes — the  radius  rod  and  valve-stem  connections — are 
on  the  same  vertical  line,  and  this  results  in  the  valve  being 
placed  exactly  central  on  its  seat  with  both  admission  ports  over- 
covered  by  the  amount  of  steam  lap,  and  this  lap  is  from  the 
inside  faces  of  the  valve  pistons  in  this  case,  because  the  live 
boiler  steam  is  contained  between  the  pistons.  With  an  engine 
standing  as  in  Fig.  6  the  position  and  location  of  combination 
lever  and  valve  would  be  the  same  with  valves  of  either  inside  or 
outside  admission. 

Eotate  the  wheels  one-quarter  turn  backward  to  bring  the 
piston  at  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  rise  of  the 
eccentric  to  top  quarter  would  pull  the  link  to  a  vertical  position, 
but  have  no  effect  on  the  radius  rod  nor  upper  eud  of  the  com- 
bination lever,  but  the  lower  end  of  the  lever  would  be  pulled 
forward  carrying  the  valve-stem  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
piston's  travel  and  moving  the  valve  forward  of  its  central 
position  as  shown  in  the  plate,  far  enough  to  overcome  the  la}) 
and  to  open  the  front  admission  port  by  the  amount  required 
for  lead,  from  the  inside  of  the  front  valve  piston. 


274  VALVE 

Fig.  6  most  clearly  illustrates  the  method  of  securing  lead 
in  the  Walschaert  motion;  as  the  engine  stands  just  imagine 
that  the  main  rod  is  removed,  and  then  by  pushing  the  cross- 
head  to  each  end  of  its  stroke,  in  turn,  the  valve's  established 
amount  of  advance  for  lead  is  thereby  produced,  and  proven  to 
be  equal  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder. 

While  a  valve  of  outside  admission  must  be  thrown  by  the 
combination  lever  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  stroke  of  the 
piston  to  secure  lead,  this  valve  of  inside  admission  must  be 
advanced  in  the  same  direction  as  the  piston's  stroke  for  that 
purpose  and  to  produce  the  effect  the  valve-stem  is  connected 
to  the  combination  lever  below  the  radius  rod  connection.  And 
as  the  valve  of  inside  admission  must  have  its  long  travel  derived 
from  the  eccentric  to  be  in  an  opposite  direction  to  the  travel 
of  a  valve  of  outside  admission,  the  eccentric  is  located  so  as  to 
follow  the  crank-pin  by  a  quarter-turn,  as  shown  in  the  plate, 
instead  of  leading  the  crank  by  that  distance  as  with  valves  of 
outside  admission. 

Although  the  piston  in  Fig.  6  is  at  the  exact  center  of  the 
cylinder  the  crank-pin  has  not  yet  completed  one-half  of  its 
travel  between  the  dead  centers — assuming  the  engme  to  be  run- 
ning forward;  but  if  the  back  end  oi  the  main  rod  could  be  dis- 
connected and  raised  the  circular  opening  in  its  stub-end  would 
center  evenly  with  the  hub  center,  showing  that  it  has  gone  half 
■way  in  a  straight  line  of  motion,  but  in  dropping  it  again  to  it3 
depicted  position  the  back  end  of  the  rod  describes  the  arc  of  a 
circle  which  carries  it  to  a  point  a  few  degrees  forward  of  a 
vertical  line  through  the  hub  center,  and  the  shorter  the  main 
rod  the  greater  the  variation  from  the  center  line.  As  the 
eccentric  is  placed,  theoretically,  90  degrees  from  the  crank-pin, 
this  angularity  of  the  main  rod  in  offsetting  the  pin  from  the 
true  quarter  also  affects  the  position  of  the  eccentric,  giving  it 
now  a  location  a  few  degrees  away  from,  and  higher  than,  its 
'horizontal  center  line  of  motion,  but  as  this  error  of  location  is 
at  right  angles  to  the  eccentric  rod  the  effect  of  this  slight  offset 
is  not  perceptible  in  operation,  for,  as  the  engine  stands,  the 
error  is  present  and  if  the  reverse  lever  should  be  thrown  into 
either  gear  it  would  have  to  go  to  the  corner  notch  to  receive  the 
full  effect  of  any  error  from  the  source  referred  to,  and  with 
the  radius  rod  at  either  end  of  the  link  an  admission  port  would 
be  opened  to  its  full  capacity,  admitting  no  error  of  such  slight 
moment ;  so  the  angularity  of  the  main  rod  can  exert  no  mis- 
chievous influence  in  the  Walschaert     gear. 

From  Fig.  6  it  has  been  shown  how  the  lead  is  produced  by 
simply  moving  the  cross-head  to  the  finish  of  either  stroke  for 
the  short  travel  of  the  valve,  and  that  by  placing  the  reverse 
lever  in  either  corner  notch  the  long  travel  of  the  valve  is  given; 
both  ends  of  the  link  slot  are  at  an  equal  distance  from  a  vertical 
line  through  the  link  fulcrum  so  that  whether  the  radius  rod  is 


GEAR  275 

raised  or  lowered  it  will  throw  the  upper  end  of  the  combination 
lever  an  exactly  equal  distance  either  forward  or  back  of  its 
present  central  position,  completing  the  full  travel  of  the  valve 
either  forward  or  back. 

Q.  37. — Does  the  length  of  the  radius  rod  hanger,  and  the  loca- 
tion of  its  point  of  suspension,  have  any  material  effect  on  the 
action  of  the  Walschaert    gear? 

A. — It  does,  to  a  remarkable  degree.  There  is  but  one  correct 
location  for  the  point  of  suspension,  and  that  point  can  only 
be  determined  by  an  expert  designer  of  the  gear,  and  any  varia- 
tion from  the  true  locus  will  introduce  serious  error  in  the 
motion.  As  to  the  length  of  the  suspension  bar,  that  also  has 
considerable  influence  on  the  action,  but  there  is  a  variance  of 
opinion  as  to  the  length  of  suspension  bar  that  should  give  the 
more  nearly  correct  results.  On  one  of  the  earlier  Mason  engines 
the  suspension  bar  extended  from  the  radius  rod  to  a  lifting 
arm  on  a  reversing  shaft  tiiat  was  carried  across  the  top  of  the 
boiler,  while  in  a  much  latir  design  of  the  Walschaert:  gear  by 
the  same  builders  the  height  of  suspension  above  the  radius  rod 
was  only  equal  to  one-half  the  length  of  the  link.  The  former 
was  an  extreme  case,  but  the  latter  was  not  if  we  notice  the 
manner  of  radius  rod  carriage  in  Fig.  6,  a  design  of  the  Amer- 
ican Locomotive  Company,  where  there  is  no  swing  suspension 
to  the  radius  rod  at  all.  On  the  end  of  the  lifting  arm  there  is 
a  pivoted  slide  through  which  the  end  of  the  radius  rod  extends, 
beyond  the  link,  and  the  reversing  shaft  is  located  on  the  same 
horizontal  line  as  the  link  trunnion,  or  fulcrum  pin. 

Q.  38. — Does  the  Walschaert'  gear  admit  of  experimental 
changes  or  readjustments  in  the  roundhouse  or  on  the  road,  such 
as  seem  to  be  required  with  the  common  link  motion? 

A. — No ;  there  is  no  portion  of  the  Walschaert  gear  that  can 
be  lengthened  or  shortened,  outside  of  the  general  repair  shop, 
nor  will  there  be  any  necessity  for  alterations  in  the  motion 
work.  Formerly  it  was  the  practice  to  fit  the  Walschaert  eccen- 
tric rod  with  screw  adjustments  in  order  to  correct  through  it 
any  little  variation  in  the  proportions  of  other  parts  of  the  gear 
or  slight  errors  in  fixing  the  location  of  permanent  positions  of 
the  gear  forward  of  the  eccentric.  Such  a  screw  take-up  is 
impractical  with  the  very  heavy  rods  now  used,  but  its  length 
may  be  slightly  changed  by  adjusting  the  bearings  at  the  eccen- 
tric end  on  some  engines.  Even  were  it  possible  to  do  so  no 
change  should  ever  be  made  in  the  motion  work  of  this  gear 
ahead  of  the  eccentric  rod  except  in  the  "back  shop." 

Q.  39. — Does  lost,  or  slack,  motion  appear  in  the  Walschaert: 
gear  from  wear  at  the  connections  or  other  sources  as  rapidly  as 
it  does  in   the  Stephenson  gear? 

A. — No;  and  one  of  the  greatest  recommendations  for  the 
Walschaert  '  gear  is  the  almost  entire  absence  of  slack  due  to 
wearing    away    of    the    bearing    parts,    thus    insuring    continuous 


-76  VALYE 

regularity  in  the  distribution  of  steam  to  the  cylinders.  Under 
ordinary  conditions  an  engine  will  run  from  shopping  to  shop- 
ping without  having  had  any  part  of  the  Walschaert  gear  closed 
on  account  of  worn  looseness,  and  the  engine  will  re-enter  the 
shop  with  the  valve  gear  cutting  off  the  steam,  often,  with  no 
perceptible  loss  in  economy ;  this  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that 
all  connections  are  made  with  pins  working  in  bushings,  all  case- 
hardened,  and  no  large  eccentrics  with  the  enormous  frictional 
surfaces  of  their  sheave  and  strap. 

Q.  40. — The  Walschaert  eccentric  is  always  referred  to  as 
being  located  90  degrees  from  the  main  crank-pin.    Is  this  correct? 

A. — Actually  measured  in  degrees  the  Walschaert  eccentric 
will  usually  be  found  to  be  located  somewhat  nearer  to  the  crank- 
pin  than  the  nominal  90  degrees  when  outside  admission  valves 
are  used,  and  an  engine  with  exactly  the  same  set-up  of  gear 
except  in  having  inside  admission  valves  would  have  the  eccentric 
placed  just  the  same  number  of  degrees  more  than  90  away  from 
the  crank-pin. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  link  is  so  centered  with  the 
valve  as  to  impart  to  it  a  motion  free  from  the  result  of  incorrect 
angles,  and  in  order  to  obtain  that  result  the  link  is  hung  so 
high  that  there  i3  an  undesirable  angle  in  the  transmission  of 
motion  from  the  eccentric  to  the  link.  The  ideally  correct  design 
of  the  W^alschaert  gear  locates  the  connection  of  eccentric  rod 
to  link  exactly  on  the  center  line  through  the  axle,  and  when  so 
placed  in  actual  construction  the  eccentric  will  be  located  exactly 
90  degrees  from  the  crank-pin;  but,  as  explained,  this  location  is 
not  commonly  obtained  on  modern  locomotives;  if  the  link  foot 
was  extended  down  to  receive  the  eccentric  rod  connection  at 
the  theoretically  correct  location  its  length  would  shorten  the 
throw  of  the  link  to  an  impossible  extent,  so  a  compromise  is 
effected;  the  link  foot  is  extended  as  low  as  may  be  permissible, 
and  to  correct  the  error  still  existing,  due  to  the  angularity  of 
the  eccentric  rod's  position,  the  location  of  the  eccentric  is 
slightly  shifted  in  the  indicated  direction. 

Noting  closely  Fig.  3,  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the  crank-pin 
is  on  the  exact  front  center  the  eccentric  is  on  a  wheel  radius 
that  is  at  right  angles,  or  90  degrees,  to  a  line  from  the  link 
foot  pin  to  axle  center,  the  curved  arrow  indicating  that  the 
eccentric  is  located  90  degrees  from  the  center  line  of  motion 
of  the  eccentric  rod;  and  when  that  line  happens  to  coincide 
with  the  main  rod  's  center  line  of  motion — then,  only,  the  eccen- 
tric will  be  90  degrees  from  the  crank-pin. 

If  an  inside  admission  valve  was  substituted  for  the  D-slide 
valve  in  Fig.  3,  the  eccentric  would  have  to  be  changed  to  a 
location  directly  opposite,  across  ■  the  hub — 180  degrees  distant, 
around — and  it  is  plainly  seen  that  in  moving  across  on  the  radial 
line  of  the  eccentric,  that  would  place  it  just  the  same  number 
of   degrees  more  than   90   away   from   the  crank-pin — above   the 


GEAR  277 

wheel  hub— that  it  now  is  less  than  90  degrees  from  the  crank-pin. 

Q.  41. — "While  an  engine  is  running  the  bounding  up  and  down 
due  to  the  spring  action  affects  the  proper  working  of  the  Ste- 
phenson gear,  causing  imperfect  steam  distributiou.    What  effect 
floes  the  rough  carriage  of  the  engine  have  on  the  "VValschaert 
gear? 

A. — It  has  no  discernible  effect,  and  when  the  link  is  set  low 
enough  that  with  the  crank-pin  on  the  dead  center  the  pin  con- 
necting the  eccentric  rod  with  the  link  foot  will  be  on  the  hori- 
zontal center  line  through  the  axle — its  theoretically  correct 
location — the  rise  and  fall  of  the  engine  will  then  have  abso- 
lutely no  effect  on  the  motion  imparted  to  the  valve. 

Q.  42. — By  reason  of  the  return  crank  projecting  the  Wals- 
chaert'  eccentric  out  and  further  from  the  driving-box  than  the 
Stephenson  eccentrics  are  usually  placed,  is  it  not  the  case  that 
lost  motion  in  the  driving  boxes  will  introduce  greater  irregu- 
larities in  the  action  of  the  Walschaert    valve  gear? 

A. — 'Not  at  all;  for,  while  the  Walschaert  eccentric  may  be 
deflected  slightly  further  than  those  of  the  Stephenson  type, 
lost  motion  in  the  boxes  is  largely  dissipated  by  the  very  great 
lever  length  between  the  suspension  pins  of  the  link  and  the 
eccentric  rod  connection  with  the  link  foot,  and  through  which 
any  motion  engendered  by  the  eccentric  is  reduced  by  a  certain 
and  considerable  proportion  when  transmitted  to  the  radius  rod 
and  valve.  Loose  driving-boxes  should  not  be  permitted,  how- 
ever, as  the  general  effectiveness  of  an  engine  with  any  style  of 
valve  gear  is  seriously  impaired  when  the  driving-boxes  are  in 
such  condition  that  setting-up  the  wedges  will  not  remove  the 
lost  motion  at  those  points. 

Q.  43. — Do  the  connections  or  other  bearing  parts  of  the 
Walschaert    gear  have  a  tendency  to  heat  in  service? 

A. — No.  This  valve  gear  is  peculiarly  free  from  any  dispo- 
sition toward  heating;  there  have  been  certain  cases  where  it  has 
not  been  designed  to  meet  the  unusual  conditions  of  track  and 
service,  and  the  eccentric  rod  pins  have  heated  on  account  of 
the  twisting  effect,  on  rough  track,  between  the  parts  carried 
by  the  driving  wheel  and  the  parts  carried  by  the  main  frame. 
Such  troubles  are  not  constitutional,  are  easily  cured  and  never 
need  to  have  existed. 

Q.  44. — In  connection  with  the  Walschaert  gear,  how  may 
the  valve  be  exactly  centered  upon  its  seat  so  that  with  open 
throttle  steam  will  not  blow  from  the  open  cylinder  cocks? 

A. — With  valves  of  either  inside  or  outside  admission,  when 
the  cross-head  is  at  the  exact  center  of  its  travel  with  crank-pin 
on  the  upper  or  lower  working  quarter,  reverse  lever  in  center 
notch  of  the  quadrant  and  the  combination  lever  standing — as 
it  must — in  a  plumb,  vertical  position,  its  two  upper  connection 
pins  on  the  same  vertical  line — then  the  valve  is  at  the  perfect 
center. 


278  VALVE 

Q.  45. — \Vhat  is  the  meaning  of  the  above  reference  to  the 
crank-pin  as  being  on  the  "working  quarter"? 

A. — As  explained  in  answer  to  a  previous  question,  when  the 
crank-pin  is  on  the  perfect  quarter  it  is  on  a  vertical  line  through 
tlie  hub  center,  either  above  or  below  it,  but  owing  to  the  angu- 
larity of  the  main  rod  the  piston  is  not  then  at  the  exact  center 
of  its  stroke;  but  when  the  piston  is  at  the  true  center  of  the 
cylinder — as  outwardly  indicated  by  the  cross-head  lying  at  the 
center  of  its  travel  in  the  guides — the  crank-pin  is  then  a  few 
degrees  forward  of  the  true  quarter,  but  is  usually  referred  to 
as  being  on  the  quarter  at  that  time — therefore  the  working 
quarter.  This  difference  sometimes  causes  confusion,  and  in 
alluding  to  the  placing  of  an  engine  "on  the  quarter"  it  should 
be  stated  whether  the  quarter  is  to  be  fixed  in  reference  to  the 
position  of  the  cross-head  or  crank-pin. 

Q.  46. — If  an  engine  with  the  Walschaert  gear  is  standing 
on  the  working  quarter,  the  piston  at  the  exact  center  of  the 
cylinder  and  the  reverse  lever  in  the  center  notch  of  the  quad- 
rant, suppose  that  the  valve  was  not  truly  centered — steam  would 
blow  from  one  of  the  cylinder  cocks  with  the  throttle  open. 
What  would  be  the  cause,  and  how  could  the  cause  be  detected 
and  remedied? 

A. — With  the  gear  in  this  position  there  would  have  to  be  an 
extensive  error  indeed  to  allow  steam  to  blow  from  a  cylinder 
cock,  as  this  would  indicate  a  false  movement  of  the  valve  more 
than  equaling  the  length  of  its  lap,  and  might  be  caused  by  a 
piston  valve  loose  on  the  stem,  or  a  broken  yoke  with  a  slide 
valve.  However,  if  error  is  indicated  in  the  position  of  the 
valve,  first  be  sure  that  the  reverse  lever  is  in  the  center  notch ; 
if  the  notch  is  indicated  there  may  have  been  a  mistake  in 
laying-out  the  notches  or  in  setting-up  the  quadrant,  but  if  the 
link  trunnion  and  link-block  pin  coincide  exactly  that  is  what 
we  want  and  the  reverse  lever  is  centered  all  right,  and  in  that 
case  if  the  piston  is  also  truly  centered  and  the  valve  is  not,  prob- 
ably th^  link  bearer,  which  is  commonly  attached  to  the  guides, 
varies  s  little  in  its  position,  fore  or  aft,  and  should  be  moved 
far  enough  to  correct  the  error;  or  the  valve-stem  can  be  length- 
ened cr  shortened,  but  as  this  induces  other  minor  errors  the  other 
method  would  be  preferable. 

Q.  47. — If  the  link  bearer  should  be  moved,  thus  shifting  the 
fulcrum  of  the  link,  would  not  other  variations  in  the  gear  be 
Introduced  thereby? 

A. — The  resetting  of  the  link  fulcrum  might  be  just  what  was 
needed  to  perfect  the  whole  valve  motion  if  it  had  been  set  up 
untrue;  but  it  might  be  that  while  adjusting  the  location  of  the 
link  fulcrum  would  square  the  valve,  by  the  radius  rod  at  the 
link  center,  with  the  reverse  lever  in  a  working  notch,  there  would 
be  unequal  cut-off  by  the  valve  still,  for  the  difference  made  by 
this  change  would  have  to  be  borne  by  the  eccentric  rod  and  to 


OEAR  279 

finally   true-up    the    motion   it   might   have   to   be    lengthened   or 
shortened  as  required. 

Q.  48. — Give  directions  for  adjusting  the  length  of  the 
eccentric. 

A. — Set  the  engine  ■v\-ith  the  crank-pins  on  the  forward  dead 
center,  and  have  the  reverse  lever  moved  from  the  corner  notch 
in  foraard  gear  up  to  the  center  of  the  quadrant,  and  if  the 
valve-stem  is  moved  forward  at  all  while  the  radius  rod  is  rising 
the  eccentric  rod  should  be  lengthened ;  or,  if  the  valve-stem  is 
drawn  backward  as  the  radius  rod  is  guided  upward  by  the  link 
the  eccentric  rod  needs  shortening.  In  either  case,  of  course, 
the  alteration  should  be  by  degrees,  each  one  very  slight  and  tests 
constantly  repeated,  until  drawing  the  reverse  lever  from  the 
corner  up  to  the  center  notch  will  impart  no  movement  whatever 
to  the  combination  lever  and  the  valve  stem.  For  a  general 
test,  try  in  the  same  manner  and  alter  if  necessary  the  eccentric 
rod  on  the  other  side  of  the  engine,  but  starting  the  test  with  the 
crank-pin  on  the  back  dead  center. 

It  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  Walschaert  gear  that 
the  motion  work  forward  of  the  link,  including  the  link  bearer,  is 
permanently  set  up  and  supported  by  rigid  attachments  to  the 
guides,  guide-yoke  and  cylinder  casting;  the  eccentric  rod,  how- 
ever, represents  the  unstable  distance  between  the  rigidly  carried 
gear  and  the  main  driving  wheel,  and  as  this  distance  will  vary 
from  wear  in  the  driving-boxes,  the  length  of  the  eccentric  rod 
should  be  tested  as  directed,  occasionally,  and  if  necessary, 
shortened    or    lengthened. 

Q.  49. — Why  is  it  so  important  that  the  Walschaert  motion 
work  should  be  supported  by  attachments  in  rigid  connection  with 
the  cylinder  casting? 

A. — Any"  style  of  valve  motion  is  designed  to  simply  furnish 
a  sort  of  reciprocafing  action  between  the  piston  and  the  valve; 
both  work  in  practically  the  same  body  casting  and  are  in  per- 
manent alignment,  and  the  motion  of  one  will  be  transmitted 
without  error  to  the  other  if  the  associated  arrangement  of  gear 
that  develops  the  transmission  is  solidly  attached  to  the  body 
occupied  by  the  piston  and  valve;  in  the  common  erection  of 
the  Walschaert  gear  the  motion  work  is  borne  at  but  three 
supporting  points — the  link  fulcrum,  the  reversing  shaft  and  the 
valve-stem  slide ;  the  first  two  are  carried  on  brackets  attached 
to  the  guide  bearer,  or  yoke,  and  the  valve-stem  slide  is  either 
mounted  on  the  upper  guide-bar  or  the  slide-bar  is  connected  to 
the  cylinder  body  at  one  end  and  to  the  guide  yoke  at  the  other. 
Therefore  the  accuracy  of  the  Walschaert  gear  is  not  affected 
by  the  roll  and  twisting  effect  of  an  engine  in  motion. 

Q.  50. — Besides  furnishing  a  practically  perfect  locomotive 
valve  motion,  is  not  the  Walschaert  gear  more  desirable  in  other 
ways? 

A. — Yes,   in  many  ways;   the  absence  of   heating   is   a   great 


280  VALVE 

feature,  anJ  as  the  whole  motiou  wt)rk  is  outside  of  the  engine 
frame  a  chance  for  perfect  inspection  is  furnislied,  every  part 
can  be  easily  and  economically  oiled,  and  in  case  of  breakdowns 
in  the  gear  rejjairs  can  be  most  quickly  made,  as  there  will  be  no 
necessity  for  getting  under  the  engine ;  and  the  removal  of  the 
gear  from  inside  the  frame  offers  a  fine  opportunity  for  better 
frame  bracing,  and  at  the  point  where  most  needed  on  the  large 
engines  now   in  service. 

C^.  51. — When  an  engine  equipped  with  the  Walschaert  gear 
becomes  disabled  on  one  side  while  on  the  road,  is  there  any 
considerable  difference  in  the  methods  employed  in  getting  the 
engine  in  condition  to  proceed  than  if  the  Stephenson  motion  was 
employed  ? 

A. — A  great  deal  of  difference.  Enough  to  make  it  worth 
while  taking  up  the  several  points  of  possible  derangement. 
Some  details  are  the  same,  however,  in  all  cases — blocking  the 
valve,  for  instance,  may  be  done  in  the  same  way  whenever 
necessary,  and  in  the  same  way  whether  either  type  of  valve  gear 
is  used,  etc.,  and  while  a  breakdown  in  the  Stephenson  motion 
work  is  quite  common  it  doesn't  frequently  happen  to  the 
Walschaert  gear,  atid  engine  failures  are  seldom  charged  to  that 
account,  but  when  a  breakdown  does  occur  repairs  can  be  much 
quicker  made  to  the  Walschaert  gear,  exposed  as  it  is,  outside 
the  frame. 

Q,  52. — "Blocking  the  valve"  has  been  mentioned;  what  is 
meant,  and  when  and  how  should  it  be  done? 

A. — In  almost  every  case  of  an  engine  becoming  disabled  so 
that  the  cylinder  power  can  not  be  used  on  one  side,  if  the 
engine  is  to  proceed  under  her  own  steam  by  the  power  of  the 
other  side  the  valve  on  the  disabled  side  should  be  placed  in  an 
exactly  central  position  on  its  seat ;  the  words  exactly  central 
position  are  to  be  taken  literally,  for  it  is  not  only  to  have  both 
admission  ports  covered  so  that  no  steam  can  enter  the  cylinder, 
but  because  in  that  position  both  ends  of  the  cylinder  will  be  in 
communication  with  each  other  through  the  exhaust  cavity  of  the 
slide-valve,  or  through  the  passage  in  the  spool  of  the  piston 
valve  of  inside  admission — this,  of  course,  with  valves  having 
exhaust  lead,  as  most  of  them  now  do  have,  and  this  external 
exhaust  communication  is  plainly  shown  in  Fig.  6,  as  the  valve 
stands. 

After  the  necessary  disconnections  of  the  motive  and  valve  gear 
have  been  made  the  valve  on  the  disabled  side  of  the  engine 
must  be  centered  by  moving  on  the  valve-stem  and  judging  from 
its  travel  when  correctly  centered;  a  better  way,  with  the  Wal- 
schaert gear,  however,  is  if  the  radius  rod  is  not  damaged  have 
it  placed  at  the  center  of  the  link — by  putting  the  reverse  lever 
in  its  center  notch  if  possible — and  then  fixing  the  combination 
lever  in  its  central  position  so  that  its  two  upper  connection  pins 


GEAR  281 

are  on  a  vertical  line  with  each  other;  the  valve  will  then  be 
exactly  centered  and  the  way  is  exemplified  in  Fig.  6. 

After  it  is  seen  that  no  steam  will  blow  from  the  opened 
cylinder  cocks  on  the  broken-down  side  with  the  throttle  slightly 
opened,  however,  the  valve  is  practically  centered,  but  in  any 
case  it  is  best  to  disconnect  the  cylinder  cock  rigging  on  that 
side  so  that  the  cocks  can  be  left  permanently  open  and  permit 
those  on  the  other  side  to  be  worked  at  will,  in  order  to  afford 
relief  against  compression  in  the  cylinder  from  the  travel  of 
the  piston  if  the  main  rod  is  left  up,  in  place,  and  also  for  detec- 
tion in  case  the  valve  should  get  shifted  off  center  by  showing 
steam  at  one  of  the  cocks;  some  engineers  prefer  to  unscrew 
and  remove  the  cocks  entirely.  When  the  cylinder  is  fitted  with 
plugs  for  indicator  connections  their  removal  will  obviate  the 
necessity  of  disconnecting  the  cylinder  cock  rigging. 

On  many  roads  a  clamp  is  carried  on  each  engine  to  secure  the 
valve-stem  immovably  with  and  fix  the  valve  on  the  correct  center 
in  case  of  breakdowns,  but  where  such  clamp  is  not  at  hand  it 
has  been  generally  the  custom  to  raise  the  steam-chest  cover — 
where  a  D-slide  valve  is  concerned — and  place  retaining  blocks 
in  front  and  behind  the  valve,  wedging  them  in,  and  so  secure 
it  in  position ;  but  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  try  to  raise  the 
cover  of  the  steam-chest  on  one  of  our  big,  modern  engines  and 
it  is  safe  enough,  under  the  charge  of  a  watchful,  competent 
engineer,  to  omit  the  actual  blocking,  for,  after  the  valve  has 
been  centered,  when  steam  is  used  its  pressure  on  the  unbalanced 
area  of  the  slide-valve  will  be  great  enough  to  hold  it  bej^ond 
any  danger  of  moving  except  in  case  of  bumping  up  against 
cars,  and  then  the  engineer  will  be  warned  by  the  steam  from 
one  of  the  open  cylinder  cocks.  An  advantage  in  not  perma- 
nently securing  the  valve  is  that,  where  the  main  rod  has  not 
been  taken  down,  if  the  live  side  should  stop  on  the  dead  center 
the  valve  on  the  disabled  side  could  be  moved  by  the  stem  off 
center,  to  open  the  proper  admission  port,  and  steam  then  used 
to  move  the  engine  just  far  enough  to  get  the  working  side 
off  the  center,  stopping  at  the  right  moment  with  the  air  brakes, 
and  then  with  steam  shut  off  the  valve  can  again  be  centered. 

Piston  valves  of  inside  admission  are  perfectly  balanced,  fore- 
and-aft,  and  without  blocking  will  usually  remain  centered  by 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  setting  out  the  packing  rings  against 
the  walls  of  the  valve  chest. 

In  times  past  engineers  have  been  disciplined  for  not  discon- 
necting the  main  rod  on  the  disabled  side  of  the  engine  and 
allowing  the  piston  to  churn  in  the  cylinder;  now,  however,  the 
weight  of  the  main  rod  makes  taking  it  down  on  the  road  pro- 
hibitive, and  it  has  been  found  that  no  trouble  need  result  from 
leaving  it  up  if  the  engineer  understands  his  business ;  if  he  does, 
he  will  let  the  lubricator  feed  to  the  steam  chest  on  the  disabled 
side   as  usual  and   at   certain  stops,   if   the   valve   is   not   blocked 


282  VALVE 

inside  the  steam  chest,  he  will  move  it  far  enough  to  uncover 
one  of  the  admission  ports  (even  if  not  necessary  to  do  so  to  work 
the  other  side  ofl'  the  dead  center)  and  open  the  throttle  slightly 
to  blow  the  accumulated  oil  into  the  cylinder. 

Q.  53. — With  the  Stephenson  gear  when  the  main  rod  is  left 
up  on  the  disabled  side  of  an  engine  its  motion  can  not  affect 
any  part  of  the  valve  gear,  but  with  the  Walschaert  type  of  gear 
would  it  not  give  impulse  to  the  combination  lever,  and  should  not 
the  combination  lever  then  be  taken  down? 

A. — Through  the  cross-head  motion  would  be  imparted  to  the 
combination  lever,  but  it  need  not  be  taken  down,  for  its  motion 
should  not  affect  the  valve,  on  account  of  disconnections  made 
elsewhere  in  the  gear. 

Q.  54. — Whenever  a  valve  is  "blocked"  or  centered,  it  must 
be  disconnected  of  course,  from  any  part  of  the  gear  that  would 
impart  motion  to  it,  and  with  the  Stephenson  link  motion  the 
valve-stem  is  the  general  point  of  disconnection;  would  that  be 
the  recommended  practice  in  connection  with  the  Walschaert 
gear? 

A. — No,  it  is  inconvenient  and  unnecessary  to  disconnect  the 
Walschaert  valve-stem — inconvenient,  because  there  is  no  joint 
between  the  valve  and  the  slide  that  carries  the  end  of  the  valve- 
stem,  and  unnecessary,  for  the  reason  that  the  radius  rod  must 
always  be  disconnected  when  the  valve  is  blocked,  and  that  removes 
the  fulcrumiug  point  of  the  combination  lever.  For  a  lever  to 
transmit  motion  it  must  have  three  points  for  the  reception  and 
transmission  of  power,  and  with  the  radius  rpd  removed  the  com- 
bination lever  is  left  with  only  the  cross-head  connection  at  the 
lower  end  and  its  upper  end  connected  to  the  valve-stem  slide,  the 
latter  acting  as  a  fixed  suspension  point  for  the  pendulum-like 
swing  of  the  combination  lever  in  unison  with  the  strokes  of  the 
piston. 

Q.  55. — As  the  disconnection  of  the  radius  rod  takes  the  place 
of,  and  with  the  same  effect,  as  disconnecting  the  valve-stem  of 
the  Stephenson  link  motion,  it  will  be  frequently  referred  to  in  the 
following  answers  to  questions  relating  to  breakdowns,  and  to 
avoid  repetitions  explain  once  for  all,  in  detail,  how  it  should  be 
done. 

A. — In  many  eases  the  radius  rod  will  not  need  to  be  removed ; 
where  there  is  but  a  short  distance  for  the  engine  to  go,  or  it  may 
be  run  slowlj',  remove  the  pin  from  point  of  radius  rod  and  com- 
bination lever  and  raise  the  front  of  the  rod  above  any  chance 
of  interference  with  the  lever,  suspending  the  front  end  of  the  rod 
by  strong  rope  or  wiring  of  a  length  that  will  permit  it  to  swing 
freely  to  the  motion  of  the  link  without  striking  anything;  then 
just  center  the  valve  in  the  manner  already  described  and  pro- 
ceed slowly.  This  method,  of  course,  is  only  to  be  resorted  to 
•where  it  is  merely  desired  to  get  to  the  nearest  siding  with  the 


GEAR  283 

engine,  which  must  be  run  very  slowly  or  the  radius  rod  will 
kick-off  the  running-board. 

If  it  is  desired  to  so  fix  up  the  disabled  side  of  an  engine  that 
she  can  use  the  power  of  the  other  side  to  finish  the  run  and  make 
the  time  with  what  she  can  pull  in  safety,  set  the  reverse  lever 
in  the  center  notch  in  order  to  center  the  link-block,  in  which 
position  the  link  can  give  no  motion  to  the  radius  rod ;  then  fit  a 
block  of  wood  within  the  link  slot  and  under  the  link-block  to 
support  the  latter,  and  disconnect  the  suspension  bar  from  the 
radius  rod — and  also  from  the  lifting  arm  if  it  will  be  in  the 
way  of  the  swing  of  the  link ;  disconnect  the  front  end  of  the 
radius  rod  from  the  combination  lever  and  raise  and  secure  it 
as  before  mentioned,  but  with  a  shorter  suspension,  as  there  will 
be  no  swing  to  it  now.  The  slot  above  the  link-block  should  also 
be  filled  in  with  a  piece  of  wood  to  prevent  the  link-block  from 
jumping  up  from  the  center  and  giving  a  thrust  to  the  radius  rod. 
It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  block  within  the  link  slot,  as 
wooden  pieces  may  be  fitted  under  and  over  the  radius  rod,  be- 
tween its  jaws  and  the  ends  of  the  link  bracket,  but  in  this  ease 
the  ends  of  the  pieces  that  are  in  contact  with  the  radius  rod 
must  be  rounded  to  roll  against  it  as  the  link  swings. 

The  radius  rod  having  been  disconnected  from  the  combination 
lever,  the  motion  of  the  lower  end  of  the  lever  will  have  no  effect 
on  the  valve,  which  may  now  be  centered  and  secured — or  trusted 
to  "stay  put"  as  heretofore  explained.  As  the  engine  starts  to 
move  watch  closely  the  motion  of  the  combination  lever  during  the 
first  revolution  of  the  driving  wheels,  to  see  that  it  does  not  strike 
the  pin  connecting  the  main  rod  with  the  cross-head,  as  the  rela- 
tive positions  assumed  by  this  pin  and  the  combination  lever  are 
changed  by  the  removal  of  the  influence  of  the  radius  rod. 

Q.  56. — If  the  eccentric  rod  of  the  Walschaert  gear  should 
break,  what  should  be  done? 

A. — Eeniove  the  broken  parts,  and  drop  the  reverse  lever  to  the 
go-ahead  corner  notch;  then  disconnect  the  suspension  bar  from 
the  radius  rod  on  the  disabled  side  of  the  engine,  permitting  the 
link-block  to  rest  at  the  bottom  of  the  link,  ancl  disconnect  the 
radius  rod  from  the  combination  lever,  raising  the  front  end  of  the 
radius  rod  above  any  chance  of  interference  and  securing  it  there 
in  order  to  keep  the  link  from  swinging.  Center  the  valve  in  the 
prescribed  manner  and  proceed. 

Q.  .57. — What  should  you  do  in  the  case  of  a  broken  valve-stem? 

A. — The  radius  rod  should  be  centered  securely  in  the  link,  dis- 
connected from  hanger  and  combination  lever  and  wired  up  at  the 
front  end  as  previously  explained ;  then  center  the  valve  in  the 
recommended  manner  and  block,  or  otherwise  secure,  the  valve- 
stem  slide  against  any  movement  on  the  slide-bar  that  might  be 
caused  by  the  swing  of  the  combination  lever,  as  it  has  not  the 
f rictional  resistance  of  the  valve  to  hold  it  in  a  fixed  position, 
now,  but  be  sure  to  place  the  slide  at  a  point  where  the  combina- 


284  VALVE 

tion  lever  will  be  carried  without  striking  the  pin  that  connects 
main  rod  ami  cross-head. 

Q.  58. — How  would  you  get  along  with  a  case  where  the  radius 
rod  was  broken  forward  of  the  link? 

A. — Would  remove  all  parts  of  the  broken  rod,  disconnecting 
same  from  the  suspension  bar  and  combination  lever,  and  also 
from  the  link-block,  unless  there  was  a  long  enough  piece  left 
attached  forward  of  the  link  to  permit  of  wiring  it  up  and  secur- 
ing the  link-block  in  the  center  of  the  link,  which  could  be  done 
in  that  case.  Center  the  valve  in  the  manner  referred  to  and  go 
on.  But  under  any  circumstances  in  which  the  radius  rod  has 
been  disconnected  always  remember  the  importance  of  seeing  that 
the  combination  lever  will  swing  clear  of  the  wrist-pin  in  the 
cross-head,  and  that  the  suspension  bar  will  be  out  of  the  way  of 
the  swing  of  the  link. 

Q.  59. — If  the  suspension  bar  should  break,  or,  where  it  is  con- 
nected to  an  extension  of  the  radius  rod  beyond  and  back  of  the 
link  if  that  extension  of  the  radius  rod  should  break,  what  should 
be  done? 

A. — In  either  case  place  the  reverse  lever  in  a  notch  of  the 
quadrant  that  will  give  the  valve  an  average  cut-off,  or  in  which 
it  may  be  contiuuously  worked — forward  or  back  gear,  according 
to  the  direction  in  which  the  engine  is  to  run — raise  the  radius 
rod  with  the  broken  piece — or  hanger — until  the  link-block  is 
at  the  same  height  in  the  link  as  the  one  on  the  other  side  of  the 
engine,  and  insert  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  link  slot  under  the 
link-block  to  hold  it  up,  and  another  piece  above  the  link-block 
to  keep  it  from  slipping  up.  Eemove  the  broken  parts  and  pro- 
ceed, remembering  not  to  reverse  the  engine  nor  to  change  the 
reverse  lever  to  another  notch. 

Q.  60. — What  should  be  done  in  case  the  combination  lever,  or 
the  vibrating  link  that  connects  it  with  the  cross-head,  should  be 
broken  ? 

A. — If  the  combination  lever  is  broken  disconnect  and  remove 
all  pieces  that  are  not  in  connection  with  the  valve-stem  slide ; 
if  it  be  the  long  arm  of  the  combination  lever  that  is  broken,  or 
the  vibrating  link,  take  down  the  vibrating  link  also,  and  if  the 
piece  of  lever  remaining  attached  to  the  valve-stem  slide  is  long 
enough  to  be  in  the  path  of  the  pin  in  the  cross-head,  either 
remove  the  piece  or  draw  it  out  of  the  way  and  secure  it  there. 
Center  the  valve  and  disconnect  the  radius  rod,  both  as  heretofore 
explained,  and  go  on. 

Q.  61. — In  all  of  the  cases  so  far  it  has  been  understood  that 
the  main  rod  has  been  left  in  place;  suppose,  however,  that  the 
main  rod  should  be  broken,  compelling  its  removal — what  ought 
to  be  done? 

A. — After  taking  down  the  broken  parts  of  the  main  rod  and 
disconnecting  the  radius  rod,  if  the  valve  is  of  inside  admission, 
push  it  to  the  forward  end  of  the  steamchest  and  clamp  the  valve- 


GEAR  285 

stem  or  block  the  valve-stem  slide  to  secure  it  in  that  position; 
with  a  valve  of  outside  admission  drave  it  to  the  back  end  of  its 
travel  and  secure  it  there ;  the  idea  is  to  hold  the  forward  port 
open  for  steam  admission  against  the  front  of  the  piston,  and  the 
back  port  open  from  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston  to  the 
exhaust;  the  cross-head  should  then  be  drawn  back  until  the  piston 
is  against  the  back  cylinder  head.  This  is  called  "steam  bleek- 
ing, ' '  for  when  steam  is  used  it  will  hold  the  piston  in  its  fixed 
position.  Then  you  can  go  on,  but  after  drifting  any  distance, 
shut  off,  use  steam  carefully  at  first  for  fear  the  piston  may  have 
also  drifted  forward  a  little  way  in  the  cylinder  and  -will  be 
pounded  back  to  the  head  too  severely;  it  is  better,  therefore,  to 
fasten  a  piece  of  wood  to  fit  in  the  guides  ahead  of  the  cross-head. 

Q.  62. — Engines  with  the  Stephenson  link  motion  are  totally 
unfitted  to  run  under  their  own  steam  if  but  one  section  of  side 
rod  should  break  when  it  happens  that  the  eccentrics  are  mounted 
on  a  different  axle  than  the  one  worked  directly  by  the  main  rod, 
and  if  the  broken  side  rod  is  the  one  connecting  the  wheels  of 
the  eccentrics'  axle  with  the  wheels  carrying  the  main  rod  on 
either  side  of  the  engine.  Could  the  breaking  of  any  section  of 
side  rod,  only,  have  the  effect  of  completely  disabling  an  engine 
equipped  with  the  Walschaert'   valve  gear? 

A. — Xo ;  the  eccentric  of  the  Walschaert'  gear  is  always 
mounted  on  the  main  pair  of  wheels — the  wheels  worked  directly 
by  the  main  rod — and  therefore  the  removal  of  all  sections  of  side 
rods  on  both  sides  of  the  engine  could  in  no  way  affect  the  valve 
motion.  If,  however,  any  one  section  of  the  side  rod  should  break, 
the  corresponding  section  of  rod  on  the  other  side  of  the  engine 
should  be  taken  down ;  the  only  result  from  doing  so  will  be  to 
make  the  engine  more  slippery  and  very  hard  to  hold  to  the  rail — 
if  equipped  with  the  Walschaert'    valve  gear. 

Q.  63. — If  the  pLston  should  be  broken,  or  loose  from  the  piston 
rod  in  the  cylinder,  what  repairs  are  required? 

A. — Commonly  the  result  of  this  accident  is  to  tear  off,  or 
break,  the  front  cylinder  head,  but  the  head  should  be  removed 
whether  injured  or  not,  and  the  piston  extracted  from  the  cylin- 
der; if  the  piston  rod  is  not  bent  disconnect  the  radius  rod  and 
center  the  valve  in  the  prescribed  manner — except  that  of  course 
the  cylinder  cocks  will  not  need  to  be  fixed  open  nor  taken  out 
on  the  disabled  side — and  move  on. 

Q.  64. — In  case  of  a  bent  piston  rod  what  should  be  done? 

A. — Take  down  the  main  rod,  disconnect  the  radius  rod  in  the 
regular  manner  and  center  the  valve  securely.  Use  your  own 
judgment  as  to  blocking  the  cross-head — the  piston  and  rod  will 
usually  be  so  cramped  as  to  make  blocking  unnecessary. 

Q.  65. — In  the  too  common  case  of  blowing  out  a  front  cylin- 
der head,  what  should  you  do? 

A. — Disconnect  the  radius  rod  and  center  the  valve,  both  by  the 
instructed    method,    except    that    in    this    case   if    the    fixed-open 


286  VALVE 

cylinder  cocks  will  not  afford  relief  for  the  compression  from  th& 
piaton  's  back  stroke  it  is  only  necessary  to  remove  one — the  back 
— cylinder  cock;  or  better  still,  where  there  is  one,  unscrew  the 
indicator  plufi  from  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder.  In  this  case 
of  running  with  the  main  rod  up  one  of  the  objectionable  features 
in  doing  so  is  removed — the  general  lack  of  facilities  for  oiling 
the  piston  in  the  cylinder — for  with  the  front  head  off  oil  can 
easily  be  introduced. 

When  the  back  cylinder  head  is  broken,  it  is  best  to  proceed  as 
directed  in  the  case  of  bent  piston  rod. 

Hehnholtz  Modification. — Among  the  various 
modifications  of  the  Walschaert  gear  the  one  made 
by  Helmholtz  is  probably  of  some  advantage.  This 
modification  consists  in  making  the  link  straight 
and  tlie  radius  bar  is  connected  to  tlie  lifting  link 
instead  of  the  link  block.  The  curving  of  the  link 
is  compensai;ed  for  by  the  reversing  shaft  or  lift- 
ing arm  fulcrum  being  located  in  a  given  position 
above  the  link  so  that  the  locus  of  the  suspension 
point  of  the  lifting  link  forms  an  arc  of  a  circle 
with  its  chord  perpendicular  to  the  center  line  of 
the  radius  bar  in  its  center  position.  The  radius 
of  this  arc  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  length 
of  the  radius  bar  as  the  distance  of  the  radius 
bar  connection  above  the  link  block  bears  to  the 
length  of  the  lifting  link,  which  results  in  that 
this  connection  is  moving  in  an  arc  with  a  radius 
of  the  length  of  the  radius  bar  and  the  same  mo- 
tion of  the  valve  is  obtained  as  in  the  direct  Wal- 
schaert gear. 

Two  advantages  may  be  claimed  for  this  modifi- 
cation, of  which  one  is  the  straight  link  being 
simpler  to  make  than  the  curved  one,  and  the 
other  is  that  on  large  piston  valve  engines  with 
inside  admission  the  link  fulcrum  can  be  lowered 
by  the  amount  the  radius  bar  connection  falls  over 
the  link  block,  whereby  the  eccentric  rod  connec- 


GEAR  287 

tion  can  be  brought  closer  to  the  center  line  of  the 
axle  with  less  length  of  link  and  eccentric  throw. 
It  has,  however,  the  disadvantage  that  there  is 
little  choice  in  the  location  of  the  reversing  shaft 
or  lifting  arm  fulcrum,  a  proper  position  for 
which  is  hardly  obtainable  on  all  types  of  engines 
and  admits  of  no  other  method  of  lifting  the  radius 
bar  in  linking  up  or  reversing  the  engine. 

Young  Valve  Arrangement. — This  gear  consists 
chiefly  in  the  application  of  the  Corliss  valves  to 
the  locomotive  engine  with  one  valve  both  for  the 
steam  inlet  and  the  exhaust  at  each  end  of  the  cvl- 


(TOCHER 


FIG.  17 
YOUNG'S  ROTARY  VALVE  MOTION. 

inder.  Each  valve  is  provided  with  double  ad- 
mission and  exhaust  ports  as  shown  by  Fig.  18. 
The  steam  ports  are  practically  opposite  each 
other,  and  the  relation  of  the  edges  of  the  ports 
in  the  valve  to  these  ports  corresponds  to  that  of 
the  valve  edges  to  the  steam  ports  of  the  ordinary 
slide  valve,  forming  the  steam  laps,  lead  and  ex- 
haust laps  or  clearance  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
exhaust  cavity  is  a  passage  diametrically  through 
the  valve  of  sufficient  width  on  one  side  to  com- 


288  VALVE 

bine  both  steam  ports  with  the  main  exhaust  port 
simultaneously  during  the  exliaust  period.  At 
right  angles  to  the  exhaust  passage  is  a  similar 
but  somewhat  larger  cavity  which  corresponds  to 
the  steam  chest  with  transverse  passages  through 
the  valve  body  alternating  with  the  exhaust  pas- 
sages, and  the  lap  and  exhaust  edges  are  sur- 
rounded by  carefully  fitted  slais,  both  on  sides  and 
ends  to  prevent  leakage. 

The  motion  is  transmitted  through  a  pivoted 
wrist  plate  to  the  valve  from  an  ordinary  Stephen- 
son or  Walschaert  valve  motion,  the  former  as 


FIG.  18 
SECTION  THROUGH  VALVES  &  CYLINDER 


indicated  in  Fig.  17.  By  means  of  pivoting  the 
wrist  plate  on  the  arm  of  a  bell  crank  whose  other 
arm  is  connected  with  a  union  rod  to  a  short  arm 
on  the  reverse  shaft,  the  wrist  plate  is  raised  and 
lowered  by  the  motion  of  the  reverse  lever  pro- 
ducing a  moderate  increase  in  lead,  an  earlier  ex- 
haust and  later  compression  than  the  direct  Ste- 
phenson motion  produces  in  linking  up  the  engine. 
The  main  advantage  of  this  valve  is  the  quicker 
admission,  closing  and  exhaust  it  accomplishes  due 


GEAR  289 

to  tlie  double  port  openings,  and  the  small  resist- 
ance -it  offers  to  the  valve  motion,  as  compared 
with  the  slide  valve,  in  being  completely  balanced. 
In  common  with  the  Allfree  gear  it  gives  a  higher 
average  pressure  at  high  speeds  than  the  ordinary 
valve.  This  gear,  as  well  as  in  the  previous 
case,  involves  additional  complications  over 
the  ordinary  gear,  requiring  special  skill,  both  in 
its  manufacture  and  adjustment,  which  to  some 
extent  counterbalances  the  above  named  advan- 
tages. 


</ 


290  VALVE 


THE  BAKER  VALVE  GEAR* 

The  Baker  Valve  Gear,  which  is  an  improvement  over  what 
was  known  as  the  Baker-Pilliod  Valve  Gear,  is  an  outside 
radial  gear,  i.  e.,  it  has  no  links  or  sliding  blocks.  The  move- 
ment is  derived  from  the  crosshead  and  the  eccentric  crank. 
The  crosshead  m9ves  the  valve  the  amount  of  the  lap  and 
lead  each  way,  and  the  eccentric  crank  gives  the  remainder 
of  the  movement.  In  the  short  cut-offs  the  actual  effect  of  the 
eccentric  crank  is  reduced,  while  the  crosshead  movement  is 
constant. 

The  bearings  are  all^ins  and  bushings,  the  latter  being 
ground  inside  and  out  to  a  standard  gauge.  The  pins  are 
case-hardened  and  ground  to  size  on  both  the  bearing  and 
tapers. 

The  improved  gear  has  ten  per  engine  less  bearings  than 
the  old  one  and  the  movement  of  nearly  all  has  been  greatly 
reduced.  Three  bearings  or  joints  on  each  side  of  the  engine, 
aside  from  the  reach-rod,  move  when  the  reverse  lever  is 
changed. 

No  loose  oil  cups  are  employed;  each  bearing  has  an  oil 
reservoir  or  cup  which  is  made  integral  with  the  part.  These 
cavities  can  be  filled  with  waste  or  curled  hair  to  retain  the 
oil,  obviating  the  danger  of  a  bearing  running  dry  on  the 
longest  runs.  All  these  bearing  pins  and  bolts  are  exposed  to 
view  so  that  they  can  be  got  at  to  be  removed  by  the  engine- 
man  or  repairman.  Three  pins,  or  two  pins  and  a  bolt,  remove 
the  hardest  piece  to  be  taken  down.  The  heaviest  piece,  the 
bell  crank,  weighs  only  86  pounds. 

*  "We  are  well  pleased  with  the  manner  in  which  you  have  covered 
our  valve  gear." — Ross  Graham,  Mechanical  Engineer,  The  Pilliod  Com- 
pany, Swanton,  Ohio. 


GEAR 


291 


292  VALTE 

Standakdizatiox  of  Parts.  This  has  been  reached  to  some 
extent  in  the  Baker  Gear  as  all  the  outside  admission  gears  of 
this  make  are  alike  and  all  the  inside  gears  are  the  same,  no 
matter  what  the  type  or  class  of  engine  upon  which  used.  The 
yokes  and  radius  bars  are  also  the  same  for  both  admissions. 
The  combination  lever  must  suit  the  stroke  of  the  engine  and 
the  lap  and  lead.  Since  there  is  not  enough  difference  in  the 
power  it  takes  to  operate  a  valve  on  different  modern  engines 
it  does  not  warrant  different  sized  gears.  With  other  gears 
there  is  not  much,  if  any,  difference  in  the  cross-section 
area  of  the  same  part  on  the  different  engines.  All  parts  are 
interchangeable,  and  the  castings,  including  the  frame,  are  the 
same  for  both  sides  of  the  engine  except  the  gear  connection 
rod.  The  combination  lever  has  rights  and  lefts,  but  they  are 
drop-forged. 

The  frame  is  one  piece  cast  steel,  the  same  casting  on  both 
sides  of  the  engine;  one  type  for  inside  admission  and  another 
type  for  outside  admission.  The  frame  is  designed  with  an 
extension  so  that  the  same  frame  will  go  on  a  variety  of 
engines.  This  reduces  to  the  minimum  the  number  of  kinds 
of  frames  that  any  road  may  have.  So  far  two  designs  of  out- 
side and  one  design  of  inside  admission  frame  have  been  used. 
Fig.  1  shows  a  general  view  of  the  gear. 

Alignment.  Every  part  of  the  gear  is  symmetrical  with 
respect  to  the  center  line  of  the  gear,  and  all  pins  are  sup- 
ported on  each  end.  This  makes  a  straight  line  motion,  and 
prevents  the  possibility  of  a  twisting  effect  on  any  part.  This 
construction  is  claimed  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  gear 
and  also  the  wearing  quality  of  the  bearings. 

Lead  and  Preadmission.  The  Baker  Gear  has  a  constant 
lead  with  a  variable  preadmission.  The  objections  to  a  con- 
stant lead  have  been  that  it  retarded  the  engine  while  running 
in  full  gear  and  did  not  give  compression  enough  in  the  short 
cut-offs. 

It  makes  no  difference  what  lead  there  is  in  full  gear  so 
long  as  there  is  not  preadmission  which  is  the  factor  in  com- 
pression. In  full  cut-off  the  Baker  Gear  has  practically  no 
preadmission  and  the  indicator  cards  show  a  low  compression 
line.    This  means  a  "quick"  engine. 


GEAR 


293 


294  VALVE 

As  the  cut-off  is  shortened,  the  preadmission  increases,  and 
at  25  per  cent  there  is  from  %-inch  to  %-inch  preadmission. 

Fig.  2  shows  in  a  general  way  the  action  of  the  Baker  Gear 
for  outside  admission.  On  an  inside  admission  gear  the  bell 
crank  stands  ahead  of  the  reverse  yoke  and  point  L  for  the 
connection  of  the  valve  rod  is  below  point  K  instead  of  above. 
The  eccentric  crank  follows  in  both  cases. 

The  circle  AD  is  the  path  of  the  crank  pin.  Circle  BB'  is 
the  eccentric  crank  circle.  ADX  is  the  main  rod.  DX  is  the 
crosshead.  DXN  is  the  crosshead  arm.  MN  is  the  union  link. 
MKL  the  combination  lever.  KJG  the  bell  crank.  The  gear 
connection  rod  is  GEC.  EF  shows  the  radius  bar.  HI  is  the 
reversing  yoke. 

The  two  movements  of  the  gear  are  as  follows:  One  from 
the  eccentric  crank  B  which  follows  the  main  pin  at  about  90 
degrees.  The  other  motion  from  the  crosshead  through  the 
combination  lever.  The  eccentric  crank  moves  the  radius 
bar  and  the  action  the  radius  bar  has  on  the  valve  Is  controlled 
by  the  reverse  yoke.  The  radius  bar  and  yoke  take  the  place 
of  the  link  and  block  of  a  link  motion.  The  combination  lever 
throws  the  valve  the  amount  of  the  lap  and  lead,  the  same 
as  in  the  Walschaert  Gear.  This  makes  the  lead  constant  and 
independent  of  the  cut-off.  Having  a  constant  lead  the  valve 
should  show  lead  opening  in  all  cut-offs  when  the  engine  is  on 
either  dead  center. 

The  cut-off,  release  and  compression  is  done  by  means  of 
the  eccentric  crank  and  controlled  by  the  reversing  yoke.  The 
yoke  controls  the  length  of  the  cut-off  and  also  reverses  the 
engine.  The  action  is  as  follows:  Eccentric  crank  in  going 
from  B'  to  B  moves  point  C  from  CS  to  C'S-  By  this  move- 
ment it  moves  pin  ES  through  H  to  E'^-i.  The  particular 
path  of  E  is  an  arc  whose  radius  is  E'-jF-j.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  EF  causes  point  E  to  raise.  This  rising  movement 
moves  G  from  G-^  to  G-i  which,  by  means  of  the  bell  crank, 
moves  K  from  K-^  to  K-,.  This  it  can  be  seen  will  move  the 
valve  forward.  The  valve  is  moved  backward  to  its  original 
position  in  the  next  half  turn  of  the  wheel.  The  peculiar 
action  of  the  combination  lever  is  not  shown.  As  the  com- 
bination lever  does  its  important  work  near  the  dead  center 


GEAR 


295 


296 


VALVE 


0 

09 

< 

Q 
2 


GEAR  297 

•of  the  engine  and  when  the  engine  is  in  the  position  as  shown 
In  the  diagram  the  combination  lever  is  as  shown  on  the 
diagram. 

From  the  diagram  it  will  be  noticed  that  E  has  a  rising 
and  falling  movement  caused  by  the  radius  bar  EF.  If  the 
yoke  is  changed  from  I-i  to  I-2  it  would  change  the  center  of 
the  radius  F.  So  that  E  will  move  from  E^  to  E'S  in  other 
words,  the  rising  and  falling  movement  is  cut  down  which 
would  move  G  from  G-.  to  G-2  and  K  from  K-3  to  K-^.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  with  the  varying  position  of  the  yoke  I 
the  amount  of  movement  of  the  valve  varies.  When  I  is  in 
the  mid-gear  position  E  would  not  move  up  and  down  at  all 
but  simply  swing  back  and  forth  in  an  arc.  If  I' is  put  in  full 
backward  motion  the  same  motion  of  the  eccentric  crank  that 
caused  the  rising  movement  before  would  cause  the  falling 
movement  in  the  back  motion  and  E  would  go  from  E"-^  to 
E\.  The  full  motion  backward  is  shown  by  a  dotted  line  and 
the  short  cut-off  in  backward  motion  by  dash  and  three  dots. 

Instructions  on  Setting  the  Baker  Gear.  Connect  up  the 
gear  and  check  the  throw  of  the  reverse  yoke,  also  clearance 
at  all  points,  with  the  eccentric  crank  clamped  temporarily 
to  the  main  pin,  but  as  near  as  possible  to  the  specified  throw. 
Locate  the  dead  centers  in  the  usual  way. 

Eccentric  Crank.  With  the  engine  on  the  front  dead 
center  tram  from  the  center  of  the  pin  in  front  end  of  eccentric 
rod  to  any  stationary  point,  such  as  the  guide  yoke  or  guides, 
as  shown  by  tram  points  "A"  and  "B,"  Fig.  5.  (In  most  cases 
the  wheel  tram  can  be  used  for  this  work.)  After  scribing  a 
line  across  the  side  of  the  main  guide  with  the  "A"  end  of 
the  tram,  revolve  the  wheel  to  the  back  dead  center  and  scribe 
the  guide  again;  if  these  two  lines  are  together  the  crank  set- 
ting is  correct.  If  they  are  not,  knock  the  eccentric  crank  in 
or  out  until  they  do.  The  position  of  the  reverse  lever  is  not 
important  while  finding  the  eccentric  positions.  After  the 
valve  setter  has  had  sufficient  experience,  the  location  of  the 
eccentric  can  be  determined  while  obtaining  the  dead  centers. 

Valve  Travel.  Put  the  reverse  lever  in  full  forward  motion 
position  and  test  the  full  travel.  If  there  is  a  difference  be- 
tween the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  engine,  lengthen  the  gear 


298 


VALVE 


GEAR 


299 


/yys/^j^  /9^/Y/ss/o/y 


30'^ 


VALVE 


reach  rod  on  the  side  of  the  engine  where  the  short  travel 
exists.  After  obtaining  the  same  travel  on  each  side  of  the 
engine  in  this  manner,  the  reverse  lever  should  be  put  in  its 
central  position  and  the  main  reach  rod  adjusted  until  the 
dimensions  shown  on  Fig.  6  are  obtained  for  mid-gear  position; 
then  the  quadrant  length  should  be  tested  for  the  desired  travel 
in  both  full  forward  and  back  motions. 

EccKNTuic  Rod  Lkn'gth.  The  inside  admission  gear  is  direct 
in  the  forward  motion  and  indirect  in  the  back  motion  and  the 
ratio  of  the  gear  is  4  to  1,  therefore  the  valve  will  move  for- 
ward iV  if  the  eccentric  rod  is  lengthened  i/4"  with  the  lever 
in  the  extreme  forward  motion  and  the  engine  on  dead  center. 
If  the  lever  is  in  the  extreme  back  motion  the  valve  will  move 
back  iV  when  the  rod  is  lengthened  i/4"-  Having  taken  the 
port  marks  with  your  standard  valve  stem  tram,  take  the  lead 
openings  in  both  motions  as  shown  by  Fig.  7,  w^hich  shows 
eccentric  rod  V-J'  too  long  for  inside  admission. 


f-RONV 


Fig.  7 


If  you  shorten  the  rod  y^"  and  take  the  lead  points  again 
the  valve  will  be  shifted  back  in  the  forw^ard  motion  until 
lead  line  "A"  is  at  "E"  and  lead  line  "B"  is  at  "F,"  and  in  the 
back  motion  the  valve  will  be  shifted  ahead  until  the  lead  line 
"C"  will  be  at  "E"  and  lead  line  "D"  will  be  at  "F,"  which 
will  make  the  condition  as  shown  by  Fig.  8. 

After  obtaining  leads  as  shown  by  Fig.  8,  the  length  of  the 
valve   rod   should   be   adjusted,   making   "G"   and   "H"  equal. 


UEAR 


30x 


Fig.  8 


After  the  setter  has  had  some  experience  the  valve  rod  and 
eccentric  rod  alterations  can  be  made  after  one  revolution  of 
the  wheels.  Referring  back  to  the  paragraph  on  Eccentric 
Crank  Setting,  which  can  be  checked  from  the  stem  (see  Fig. 
7),  on  -fthich  the  distance  between  "A"  and  "B"  on  the  hori- 
zontal line  of  the  stem  is  equal  to  "C"  and  "D,"  this  will 
always  be  the  case  when  crank  setting  is  correct,  whether  the 
eccentric  rod  shows  long  or  short. 

If  the  eccentric  rod  is  %"  too  short  and  the  crank  setting 
correct^  the  full  gear  lead  lines  will  come  as  shown  by  Fig.  9. 


[motion  l.EHOa  I 


Fig.  9 


After  lengthening  the  rod  i^''  you  will  have  the  condition 
shown  by  Fig.  8. 

The  foregoing  includes  inside  admission  only  and  altera- 
tions in  the  eccentric  rod  length  should  be  opposite  for  outside 
admission  valves. 

Yalve  Movements;  General  Ixformatiox.  The  Baker  Gear 
gets  its  motion  from  two  points:  the  eccentric  crank  and  the 
crosshead.  The  eccentric  crank  moves  the  radius  bar  and  the 
action  the  radius  bar  has  on  the  valve  is  controlled  by  the 


302  VALVE 

reverse  yoke.     The  radius  bar  and  the  yoke  take  the   place 
of  the  link  and  block  of  a  link  motipn. 

The  crosshead  moves  the  valve  the  amount  of  the  lap  and 
lead  each  way.  This  makes  the  lead  constant  and  independent 
of  the  cut-off. 

Having  a  constant  lead,  the  valve  should  show  lead  open- 
ing in  all  cut-offs  when  engine  is  on  either  dead  center. 

Eccentric  Crank  Setting.  With  the  Baker  Gear  the  ec- 
centric crank  always  follows  the  crank  pin.  It  stands  the 
same  for  both  inside  and  outside  admission. 

Cut-off  and  Eccentric  Rod.  If  the  eccentric  rod  is  off  in 
length  you  can  tell  it  by  the  following  rule:  If  cut-offs  are 
long  on  front  end  in  forward  motion  and  long  on  the  back 
end  in  backward  motion,  the  rod  is  too  long.  If  the  cut-offs 
come  just  the  opposite  of  the  foregoing  then  the  rod  is  too 
short. 

Break  Downs.  Two  means  are  provided  for  blocking  the 
gear  and  valve  in  case  of  a  break  down.  The  valve  stem 
crosshead  is  provided  with  a  set-screw  so  that  the  valve  can 
be  blocked  central  over  the  ports  by  clamping  the  valve  stem 
crosshead  to  its  guide.  This  is  done  in  case  the  breakage  on 
the  gear  or  engine  disables  one  side.     (See  Fig.  12.) 

The  other  way  of  blocking  is  by  bolting  the  lower  arm  of 
the  bell-crank  fast  to  the  side  of  the  frame.  After  the  valves 
have  been  set  the  reverse  lever  is  put  in  mid-gear  and  two 
holes  are  drilled  through  the  frame.  Any  bolt  that  will  go 
through  the  hole  can  be  used.  (See  Figs.  10  and  11.)  With 
the  gear  bolted  in  this  manner  the  valve  will  get  the  lap  and 
lead  movement  and  a  port  opening  equal  to  the  lead  for  all 
cut-offs.  This  allows  the  following  parts  to  fail  and  yet  get 
the  lap  and  lead  movement:  eccentric  crank,  eccentric  rod, 
connection  rod,  radius  bars,  reverse  yoke,  short  reach  rod 
and  horizontal  arm  of  bell-crank.  In  case  the  union  link  or 
crosshead  arm  fails,  it  will  be  necessary  to  block  the  valve 
over  the  ports,  tie  the  combination  lever  fast,  and  disconnect 
the  valve  rod,  unless  the  construction  of  the  engine  is  such 
that  the  combination  lever  can  be  secured  in  practically  a 
plumb  position.    If  the  combination  lever  can  be  fastened,  the 


GEAR 


303 


rO  BLOCn  BELL  C/fAHK 

Put  bolTs  //v  both  or 

THESE   MOLES. 


)  ^u/oe 


iFO      te^ 


Fig.  12 


O^XO 


TO  Block  y/^Lve.  sc/?Ew  this 

'SET  ^CffEtV  INfiq/i/nST  T/i£  (jL/IO£ 


304  VALVE 

valve  will  get  the  eccentric  movement.  The  port  opening  would 
be  reduced  and  be  closed  in  any  cut-o£E  shorter  than  50  per 
cent. 

In  case  the  combination  lever  fails,  close  up  the  bell-crank, 
block  the  valve  over  the  ports,  disconnect  the  valve  rod  and 
tie  the  loose  parts  to  keep  them  from  doing  damage. 

In  case  of  engine  breakage  do  the  same  as  with  any  other 
gear. 

The  Baker  Valve  Gear,  like  the  Walschaert  and  other  radial 
gears,  readily  lends  itself  to  any  change  in  design  that  may 
be  necessary  to  suit  the  construction  of  the  locomotive  to  which 
it  is  applied. 

The  design  shown  in  Fig.  1  is  that  originally  adopted  and 
common  to  the  majority  of  locomotives  fitted  with  this  gear, 
especially  those  built  in  past  years.  On  the  later  types  of 
locomotives,  however,  especially  the  "Mikados,"  the  design 
has  been  considerably  modified,  as  for  instance  the  long  gear 
frame  shown  in  Fig.  1,  as  extending  back  from  the  guide  yoke 
to  a  bearing  piece  crossing  the  frames  just  ahead  of  the 
tumbling  shaft,  has  been  changed  to  a  short  cast  steel  bracket 
bolted  to  the  rear  of  the  guide  yoke,  this  bracket  carrying  the 
bell  crank  and  the  reverse  yoke.  This  change  made  it  neces- 
sary to  change  the  connecting  point  of  the  combination  lever, 
and  the  combination  lever  was  therefore,  carried  forward  and 
connected  to  what  is  termed  in  a  Baker  Gear  the  valve  rod, 
which  corresponds  to  the  radius  rod  in  a  Walschaert  Gear,  the 
connection  being  made  at  the  valve  stem  crosshead.  Where 
the  valves  are  of  the  inside  admission  type,  the  valve  stem  is 
connected  to  the  combination  lever  below  the  valve  rod  con- 
nection, and  where  the  valves  are  of  the  outside  admission 
type,  the  valve  stem  is  connected  to  the  combination  lever 
above  the  valve  rod  connection,  the  connections  being  exactly 
the  same  as  where  the  combination  lever  is  placed  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1. 

The  manner  in  which  the  valve  stem  is  connected  in  the 
new  type  of  gear  and  the  valve  rod  is  connected  in  the  gear 
illustrated  in  this  supplement  always  indicates  the  type  of 
valve  used,  that  is,  whether  it  is  inside  or  outside  admission. 

In  order  that  the  action  of  this  gear  may  be  clearly  under- 


GEAR  305 

stood  with  reference  to  the  different  types  of  valves  used,  we 
must  first  consider  those  with  the  gear  illustrated  as  in  Figs. 
1.  3  and  4.  The  fulcrum  point  of  the  combination  lever  is  its 
connection  to  the  lower  end  of  the  bell  crank,  while  on  the 
later  type  of  gear,  the  fulcrum  point  of  the  combination  lever 
is  where  it  is  connected  to  the  valve  rod.  In  both  instances 
this  fulcrum  is  movable;  in  other  words  it  does  not  occupy 
the  same  position  at  all  points  of  the  stroke.  As  explained  in 
a  previous  portion  of  this  supplement  the  combination  lever 
gives  the  lap  and  lead  travel;  that  is,  it  moves  the  valve  so 
that  it  has  traveled  the  amount  of  the  lap  and  the  lead  at  the 
beginning  of  each  end  of  the  stroke. 

Referring  to  Fig.  3,  as  the  combination  lever  obtains  its 
movement  from  the  crosshead,  it  is  evident  that  when  the 
crosshead  is  traveling  forward  carrying  the  lower  end  of 
the  combination  lever  with  it,  the  upper  end  of  the  combina- 
tion lever  must  be  traveling  back,  and  the  proportions  of  the 
combination  lever  are  so  arranged  that  when  the  crosshead 
is  at  its  extreme  forward  position,  the  upper  end  of  the  com- 
bination lever  has  been  pulled  back  the  amount  of  the  lap  and 
the  lead  of  the  valve,  thereby  placing  the  valve  in  position  to 
admit  steam  ahead  of  the  piston  to  force  the  piston  back. 
"When  the  crosshead  is  at  the  other  end  of  its  travel,  that  is, 
at  the  back  end  of  the  guides,  the  upper  end  of  the  combination 
lever  would  be  moved  forward  the  amount  of  the  lap  and  the 
lead,  thereby  placing  the  valve  in  position  to  admit  steam  back 
of  the  piston.  In  the  view  shown,  the  valve  rod  makes  a  direct 
connection  with  the  valve  stem  and  consequently  imparts  to 
the  valve  the  same  movement,  that  is,  a  movement  in  the  same 
direction  as  that  imparted  to  the  valve  rod. 

If,  still  referring  to  Fig.  3,  the  valves  were  of  the  inside 
admission  type,  and  the  valve  rod  connected  as  before,  it  is 
plain  that  with  the  crosshead  at  its  extreme  forward  travel, 
which  would  throw  the  top  end  of  the  combination  lever  back, 
the  back  steam  port  would  be  open  instead  of  the  front  one, 
consequently  the  engine  would  not  move.  For  this  reason 
where  inside  admission  valves  are  used,  the  valve  rod  must 
be  coupled  below  the  fulcrum  point  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  in 
order  that  when  the  crosshead  is  at  the  extreme  forward  end 


306  VALVE 

of  its  travel,  the  connection  point  of  the  valve  rod  will  also  be 
carried  forward,  thereby  moving  the  valve  forward  and  un- 
covering the  front  steam  port. 

With  the  later  type  of  the  Baker  Gear,  as  previously  ex- 
plained, the  forward  end  of  the  valve  rod,  which  in  this  case 
corresponds  with  the  radius  rod  of  the  Walschaert  Gear,  forms 
the  fulcrum  point  of  the  combination  lever  same  as  the  com- 
bination lever  connection  to  the  bell-crank  as  shown  in  Figs. 
3  and  4;  while  the  valve  stem  proper  is  connected  direct  to 
the  combination  lever,  same  as  the  valve  rod  is  connected  in 
the  figures  mentioned.  A  study  of  this  motion,  therefore, 
shows  that  the  first  movement  imparted  to  the  valve  is  that 
given  by  the  crosshead  through  the  combination  lever,  the 
remainder  of  the  movement  being  imparted  by  the  eccentric 
crank  through  the  bell-crank.  To  make  this  clear  imagine  in 
Fig.  3,  which  shows  the  reverse  lever  in  forward  gear,  that 
the  reach  rod  was  pulled  back  so  the  reverse  lever  would 
occupy  the  center  of  the  quadrant;  this  would  then  throw 
the  reverse  yoke  connections  in  line  with  the  bell-crank  con- 
nection and  the  only  effect  that  the  eccentric  crank  would 
have,  would  be  to  oscillate  the  radius  bars  forward  and  back 
without  imparting  any  material  movement  to  the  bell-crank, 
and  as  the  valve  obtains  its  movement  from  the  movement 
of  the  bell-crank  and  the  combination  lever,  it  is  clear  that 
the  only  material  movement  imparted  to  the  valve  under 
these  conditions,  would  be  that  given  by  the  combination  lever, 
which  would  be  equal  to  twice  the  lap  and  twice  the  lead. 

Throwing  the  reverse  lever  into  forward  gear,  places  the 
radius  bars  in  an  angular  position  and  therefore  they  can 
not  oscillate  as  before  without  raising  up  and  down;  as  they 
are  so  connected,  however,  as  to  prevent  any  up  and  down 
movement,  it  follows  that  the  movement  of  the  eccentric 
crank  instead  of  being  imparted  to  the  radius  bars  only,  in 
this  instance  would  be  imparted  to  the  bell-crank,  causing 
the  forward  end  of  the  bell-crank  in  Fig.  3,  and  the  back  end 
'in  Fig.  4,  to  move  up  and  down.  This  would  cause  the  lower 
end  of  the  bell-crank  to  move  forward  and  back,  thus  im- 
parting additional  motion  to  the  valve  through  the  valve  rod. 


GEAR  307 

This  explanation  is  deemed  necessary  in  order  that  engi- 
neers will  clearly  understand  the  different  movements,  so  that 
in  case  of  failure  of  any  one  of  the  parts  of  this  gear,  they 
would  know  how  to  disconnect,  what  to  disconnect  and  how 
to  block  the  remaining  portion  of  the  gear  to  get  a  valve  travel 
on  the  disabled  side.  On  the  later  type  of  Baker  Gear  there  is 
practically  nothing  that  could  break  which  would  prevent 
obtaining  some  valve  travel,  with  the  exception  of  a  valve 
stem.  On  the  type  of  gear  herein  illustrated  there  is  prac- 
tically nothing  that  could  break  which  would  prevent  obtain- 
ing a  valve  travel  with  the  exception  of  the  valve  stem,  valve 
rod  or  lower  end  of  bell-crank. 

Break  Downs.  Beginning  at  the  rear  end;  in  case  the 
eccentric  crank,  eccentric  rod,  or  the  lower  end  of  the  gear 
connecting  rod  should  break,  the  only  movement  that  could 
be  imparted  to  the  valve  would  be  that  of  the  combination 
lever,  and  as  the  combination  lever  is  fulcrumed  to  the  bell- 
crank,  it  is  plain  that  the  bell-crank  must  first  be  secured 
in  a  rigid  position  so  that  all  the  movement  imparted  by 
the  crosshead  to  the  combination  lever  would  be  imparted 
to  the  valve,  as  otherwise  were  the  bell-crank  not  secured,  the 
chances  are  the  bell-crank  would  move  instead  of  the  valve 
rod.  On  the  type  of  gear  herein  illustrated  you  will  notice 
two  holes  through  the  gear  frame.  Figs.  10  and  11;  these 
holes  are  for  the  purpose  of  fastening  the  bell-crank  in  case 
of  failure  of  any  of  the  parts  previously  mentioned,  the  bell- 
crank  being  secured  to  the  gear  frame  by  means  of  a  U-bolt 
placed  in  these  holes. 

The  short  reach  rod  connecting  the  reverse  or  tumbling 
shaft  arm  to  the  reverse  yoke  should  also  be  disconnected 
at  one  end  and  the  reverse  yoke  thrown  forward  against  the 
gear  frame  in  order  to  get  it  out  of  the  way.  This  would 
then  give  the  full  valve  travel  on  the  good  side  of  the 
locomotive  but  only  a  travel  equal  to  the  lap  and  the  lead 
on  the  disabled  side  and  a  port  opening  on  the  disabled  side 
equal  to  the  lead  opening. 

With  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner,  you  should 
be  careful  not  to  stop  with  the  good  side  on  the  dead  center 
as  if  the  good  si^de  is  on  the  dead  center,  the  disabled  side 


308  VALVE 

would  necessarily  be  on  the  quarter  and  in  this  case  the 
combination  lever  would  be  straight  up  and  down,  and  the 
ports  covered  on  the  disabled  side,  making  this  side  power- 
less, and  as  the  good  side  of  the  engine  would  be  on  the  dead 
center,  that  side  would  naturally  be  powerless  also  and  the 
engine  would  not  move.  Should  you  happen  to  stop  in  this 
position,  however,  the  engine  could  be  gotten  off  the  center 
on  the  good  side  without  the  necessity  of  pinching  by  dis- 
connecting the  lower  end  of  the  combination  lever  from  the 
union  link,  and  moving  the  combination  lever  in  the  right 
direction  to  uncover  the  port  that  would  allow  the  engine 
to  move  in  the  direction  desired,  as  for  instance,  if  the  engine 
stopped  with  the  good  side  on  the  forward  dead  center  with 
the  other  side  on  the  upper  quarter,  and  it  was  desired  to  move 
in  a  forward  direction,  the  combination  lever  should  be  swung 
so  as  to  uncover  the  back  steam  port  on  the  disabled  side. 
After  the  engine  had  been  moved  off  the  dead  center  on  the 
good  side,  the  combination  lever  should  be  coupled  up  again. 

With  the  new  type  of  gear  there  are  no  holes  provided 
in  the  gear  frame  for  the  purpose  of  fastening  the  bell-crank, 
but  the  bracket  is  so  cast  that  wooden  wedges  can  be  driven 
on  either  side  of  the  bell-crank  to  hold  it  in  position. 

If  the  gear  connection  rod  should  break  below  the  pin 
where  it  is  fastened  to  the  gear  frame,  it  would  of  course 
be  necessary  to  disconnect  the  eccentric  rod,  then  block  same 
as  for  broken  eccentric  rod  or  crank.  If  the  gear  connection 
rod  should  break  above  the  pin,  the  eccentric  rod  could  be 
left  up,  proceeding  with  the  balance  of  the  operation  same 
as  for  broken  eccentric  rod,  etc. 

In  case  the  union  link  or  the  combination  lever  should 
break,  two  methods  could  be  employed.  First,  with  the  gear 
illustrated,  the  combination  lever  together  with  the  union  link 
could  be  removed  and  in  many  instances  the  valve  rod  could 
be  connected  direct  to  the  bell-crank  at  the  point  where  the 
combination  lever  was  formerly  connected.  If  this  could  not 
be  done  and  the  failure  was  of  the  union  link  or  of  the  com- 
bination lever  at  a  point  below  its  connection  with  the  bell- 
crank,  the  union  link,  if  broken,  should  be  removed,  or  the 
union  link  and  that  portion  of  the  broken  combination  lever 


GEAR  309 

should  be  removed,  the  remaining  part  of  the  combination 
lever  placed  so  it  would  hang  straight  down  and  then  either 
wedged  or  clamped  in  such  a  position  that  it  could  not  move 
on  its  fulcrum  point  on  the  bell-crank.  This  would  then 
allow  the  eccentric  crank  to  impart  a  motion  to  the  valve 
equal  to  the  difference  between  the  motion  imparted  by  the 
eccentric  crank  only  and  that  imparted  by  the  combined  move- 
ments of  the  eccentric  crank  and  the  ■  combination  lever. 
The  port  openings  would  naturally  be  reduced  and  it  would 
be  necessary  to  work  the  engine  in  practically  full  stroke 
in  order  to  get  any  opening  on  the  disabled  side.  With  an 
engine  disconnected  in  this  manner  no  port  opening  would 
be  obtained  on  the  disabled  side  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke. 

With  the  type  of  gear  herein  illustrated,  in  case  of  failure 
of  the  valve  rod,  the  engine  would  naturally  be  disabled  on 
that  side;  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  disconnect  anything 
however;  simply  remove  the  broken  parts  if  they  are  liable 
to  interfere,  clamp  the  valve  central  on  its  seat  and  make 
the  usual  provision  for  lubricating  the  cylinder.  This  can 
be  done  by  either  taking  out  cylinder  relief  valves,  in  case 
the  cylinder  is  provided  with  them  or  slacking  off  on  the 
front  cylinder  head.  With  the  newer  type  of  gear,  however, 
even  in  case  of  a  failure  of  the  valve  rod  you  could  still  obtain, 
a  port  opening  and  work  steam  on  the  disabled  side  by  first 
removing  the  engine  so  that  the  crosshead  on  the  disabled 
side  would  be  at  the  center  of  its  stroke,  that  is,  with  that 
side  on  the  quarter,  then  disconnect  the  disabled  valve  rod 
and  cut  a  piece  of  plank  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  back 
end  of  the  steam  chest  to  the  guide  yoke;  cut  a  notch  through 
this  plank  that  will  fit  over  the  upper  end  of  the  combination 
lever;  fasten  it  securely  in  place.  This  will  act  as  a  fulcrum 
point  for  the  combination  lever  and  give  you  the  lap  and  lead 
travel.  There  would  be  no  need  of  disconnecting  any  other 
portions  of  the  gear. 


310  VALVE 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS 

Q. — What  type  of  gear  is  the  Baker  valve  gear  and  is  it  of  the 
direct  or  indirect  motion? 

A. — It  is  of  the  radial  type;  outside  gear,  direct  going  ahead  for 
inside  admission  valve  and  indirect  backing  up;  indirect  going 
ahead  for  an  outside  admission  valve  and  direct  backing  up. 

Q. — In  what  does  the  Baker  gear  differ  from  the  Walschaert? 

A. — In  the  manner  in  which  the  cut-off  is  regulated  and  the  engine 
reversed. 

Q. — How  is  this  accomplished  in  the  Baker  gear? 

A. — By  means  of  a  reverse  yoke  instead  of  a  link. 

Q. — Through  what  parts  does  the  valve  obtain  its  movement 
with  the  Baker  gear? 

A. — Through  the  combination  lever  from  the  crosshead  and 
through  the  eccentric  crank  connected  to  the  main  crank  pin. 

Q. — What  movement  is  imparted  to  the  valve  by  means  of  the 
combination  lever? 

A. — That  necessary  to  overcome  the  lap  of  the  valve  and  give 
the  lead  desired. 

Q. — Is  the  lead  given  by  the  Baker  valve  gear  constant  or 
variable? 

A. — It  is  constant. 

Q. — What  do  you  understand  by  pre-admission? 

A. — It  is  the  act  of  admitting  steam  or  having  a  port  open  before 
the  piston  reaches  the  end  of  its  stroke. 

Q. — With  the  Baker  gear  is  the  pre-admission  constant  same  as 
the  lead? 

A. — No;  pre-admission  is  variable,  increasing  as  the  cut-off  is 
shortened. 

Q. — What  would  be  the  effect  of  pre-admission  with  an  engine  in 
full  gear? 

A. — It  would  have  a  tendency  to  retard  the  movement  of  the 
engine;  also  in  a  measure  decrease  its  starting  power. 

Q. — Does  this  same  objection  obtain  when  an  engine  is  worked 
in  a  short  cut-off? 

A. — No;  pre-admission  in  this  case  acts  as  a  cushion  for  the 
reciprocating  parts. 

Q. — How  can  you  tell  at  a  glance  whether  an  engine  equipped 
with  a  Baker  gear  has  an  inside  or  outside  admission  valve? 

A. — By  the  manner  in  which  the  valve  rod  is  connected  to  the 
combination  lever;  an  engine  having  an  inside  admission  valve  has 
the  valve  rod  connected  below  the  point  at  which  the  combination 
lever  is  attached  to  the  bell  crank,  and  one  having  outside  admission 
valves  has  the  valve  rod  connected  above  this  point. 

Q. — Is  there  any  difference  in  the  setting  of  the  eccentric  crank 
for  the  inside  and  outside  admission  valve? 

A. — No;  the  eccentric  crank  always  follows  the  main  pin. 

Q. — How  should  the  different  bearings  of  the  Baker  gear  be 


GEAR  311 

lubricated?    What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used? 

A. — Bearings  should  be  lubricated  by  filling  the  pockets  or  cav- 
ities cast  in  all  the  movable  parts  and  connecting  with  the  bearings; 
these  pockets  should  preferably  be  kept  full  of  curled  hair  in  order 
to  assist  in  retaining  the  oil  and  to  prevent  grit  and  other  abrasives 
getting  into  the  bearings.     Engine  oil  only  should  be  used. 

Q. — Why  not  use  valve  oil  in  lubricating  these  bearings? 

A. — Because  owing  to  the  limited  moveme^jt  of  the  bearings  there 
is  no  tendency  on  their  part  to  run  hot,  and  valve  oil  being  thicker 
than  engine  oil  would  not  flow  around  the  bearings  as  readily  and 
consequently  might  cause  the  bearings  to  seize. 

Q. — What  would  you  do  in  case  of  failure  of  the  eccentric  crank, 
eccentric  rod,  or  lower  end  of  gear  connection  rod? 

A. — Disconnect  broken  parts  and  remove  such  portions  as  are 
lable  to  interfere;  disconnect  the  short  reach  rod;  fasten  the  bell- 
Crank  in  its  central  position  and  proceed  on  both  sides. 

Q. — With  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner,  what  port 
opening  would  you  get  on  the  disabled  side? 

A. — A  port  opening  equal  to  the  lead. 

Q. — With  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner  what  precau- 
tions should  be  taken  in  stopping? 

A. — To  see  that  the  engine  did  not  stop  with  the  good  side  on  the 
dead  center. 

Q. — Why  is  this  precaution  necessary? 

A. — Because  in  this  case,  the  good  side  being  on  the  center  would 
be  powerless,  and  the  disabled  side  being  on  the  quarter  would  place 
the  valve  in  its  central  position  covering  both  ports,  consequently 
no  steam  would  be  admitted  to  the  cylinder  on  the  disabled  side  and 
the  engine  would  not  move. 

Q. — In  case  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner,  did  stop  with 
the  good  side  on  the  dead  center,  could  the  engine  be  moved  without 
pinching?     If  so,  how? 

A. — Yes;  by  disconnecting  the  lower  end  of  the  combination 
lever  and  moving  the  valve  so  as  to  obtain  a  port  opening. 
_  Q. — With  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner  and  the  disabled 
side  on  the  quarter,  why  could  not  a  port  opening  be  obtained  by 
placing  the  reverse  lever  at  full  gear  either  forwar4  or  back? 

A. — Because  in  the  first  place  the  reach  rod  is  disconnected  on 
that  side  and  in  the  second  place,  if  the  reach  rod  were  not  discon- 
nected, the  reverse  lever  would  have  no  influence  on  the  valve 
movement  as  the  only  movement  given  to  the  valve  would  be  that 
imparted  by  the  crosshead. 

Q. — What  should  be  done  in  case  the  gear  connection  rod  broke 
above  the  point  where  it  was  fulcrumed  to  the  gear  frame? 

A. — Proceed  same  as  for  a  broken  eccentric  rod  or  crank,  except 
in  this  case  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  disconnect  the  eccentric  rod. 

Q. — What  should  be  done  in  case  of  a  broken  radius  bar? 

A. — Handle  same  as  for  broken  eccentric  rod  or  crank. 

Q. — What  should  be  done  if  the  upper  or  horizontal  bell  crank 
arm  should  break? 


312  VALVE 


A. — Handle  same  as  for  broken  eccentric  rod. 

Q. — What  should  be  done  in  case  the  lower  or  vertical  arm  of  the 
bell  crank  broke? 

A. — With  the  type  of  gear  here  illustrated  this  failure  would 
totally  disable  the  engine  on  that  side.  All  that  would  be  necessary 
to  disconnect  however  would  be  the  combination  lever,  union  link 
and  valve  rod;  then  clamp  the  valve  to  cover  the  ports  and  make 
the  usual  provision  for  lubricating  the  cyUnder.  With  the  later 
type  of  gear,  disconnect  the  valve  rod,  then  fasten  the  top  of  the 
combination  lever  by  means  of  a  plank  extending  from  the  steam 
chest  to  the  guide  yoke. 

Q. — What  would  you  do  in  case  you  broke  the  crosshead  arm, 
union  link  or  lower  portion  of  the  combination  lever? 

A. — Remove  the  broken  parts  that  are  liable  to  interfere.  If  in 
case  of  a  broken  union  link  or  crosshead  arm,  the  combination  lever 
can  be  fastened  so  that  it  cannot  move,  do  this  and  proceed  with  a 
full  train.  If  the  combination  lever  is  broken  near  its  connection 
however,  or  cannot  be  fastened,  connect  the  valve  rod  direct  to  the 
bell  crank  in  place  of  the  combination  lever  if  possible;  if  not,  wedge 
or  clamp  the  upper  end  the  combination  lever  to  the  bell  crank  in 
Buch  a  manner  that  it  cannot  move  and  proceed  with  a  full  train. 

Q. — With  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner,  how  much  valve 
travel  will  be  obtained  on  the  disabled  side? 

A. — About  two-thirds  of  the  usual  travel. 

Q. — W^ith  an  engine  disconnected  in  this  manner  at  what  cut-off 
should  the  engine  be  worked  to  secure  any  power  on  the  disabled 
side? 

A. — The  engine  should  be  worked  at  practically  full  stroke,  if 
cut  back  to  less  than  half  stroke  no  port  opening  would  be  obtain«i 
on  the  defective  side. 

Q. — What  do  you  do  in  case  of  a  broken  valve  rod? 

A. — Where  the  valve  rod  is  connected  from  the  combination 
lever  direct  to  the  valve  stem  crosshead,  the  engine  would  be  dis- 
abled on  that  side  and  should  be  handled  accordingly.  There 
would  be  no  need  to  disconnect  anything  however  except  the  valve 
rod.  Where  the  valve  rod  forms  a  connection  between  the  bell 
crank  and  the  combination  lever,  and  the  combination  lever  is 
attached  to  the  valve  stem  crosshead,  a  lead  opening  could  be  ob- 
tained by  fastening  the  top  of  the  combination  lever. 

Q. — What  would  you  do  in  case  of  a  broken  reverse  yoke? 

A. — In  case  the  yoke  is  broken  at  the  short  reach  rod  connection, 
take  down  the  short  reach  rod  and  block  the  yoke  securely  at  the 
cut-off  in  which  it  ia  necessary  to  work  the  engme.  If  the  break  in 
the  reverse  yoke  is  below  the  suspension  point  or  lugs,  proceed  the 
same  as  with  broken  eccentric  rod  or  eccentric  crank. 

Q. — What  would  you  do  in  case  of  a  broken  reach  rod? 

A. — If  one  of  the  short  reach  rods,  block  the  yoke  at  the  desired 
cut-off  point;  if  the  main  reach  rod,  block  between  tumbling  shaft 
arm  and  crosa  brace. 


GEAR  313 

SOUTHERN  LOCOMOTIVE  VALVE  GEAR 

While  it  is  a  radical  departure  from  all  previous  outside 
gears,  it  is  a  gear  that  can  be  adapted  to  any  class  of  loco- 
motives, both  inside  and  outside  admission,  and  is  designed 
with  the  view  of  eliminating  roundhouse  repairs  and  delays 
to  power  incident  thereto.  It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  there 
is  a  derangement  in  the  valve  movement  on  all  outside  radial 
gears,  due  to  the  change  in  the  angularity  of  the  main  rod  as 
the  engine  settles.  This  valve  gear  has  been  so  designed  as  to 
practically  eliminate  this  objectionable  feature. 

Transferring  from  a  rotary  motion  to  a  reciprocating  motion 
is  accomplished  by  direct  movements  and  on  straight  lines, 
doing  away  with  strains  and  distortions  found  in  other  valve 
gears  in  common  use  today.  The  links  being  located  in  a 
horizontal  position  and  being  stationary,  entirely  does  away 
with  wear  at  this  point,  as  the  block  only  moves  in  the  link 
when  the  reverse  lever  is  moved  to  adjust  cut-off  or  reverse 
gear.  The  link  being  stationary  also  eliminates  what  is  known 
as  the  slip  in  the  link  block,  found  in  some  outside  gears. 
There  are  but  eight  possible  points  of  wear  on  each  side  of  an 
engine  or  a  total  of  sixteen  points  of  wear  per  locomotive,  this 
being  less  than  half  contained  in  other  gears. 

This  gear  will  practically  do  away  with  engine  failures  due 
to  breakage  of  valve  gear  parts.  The  different  parts  are  so 
balanced  as  to  reduce  the  wear  on  the  pins  and  bushings  to  a 
minimum.  The  forward  end  of  the  eccentric  rod  is  supported 
by  bell  crank  hanger,  which  has  at  its  top  two  bearings  spaced 
widely  apart,  thus  absolutely  preventing  any  side  slap  on 
eccentric  rod. 

This  valve  gear  is  designed  to  eliminate  all  stress  and 
strains  on  reverse  lever  and  reach  rod  connections.  The 
reverse  lever  is  easily  handled  with  one  hand  while  engine 
is  working  under  full  steam  pressure.  This  feature  appeals 
very  strongly  to  the  engineer  as  it  enables  him  to  adjust  his 
cut-off  without  fear  of  the  reverse  lever  getting  away  from  him 
and  will  induce  him  to  work  as  short  cut-off  as  possible,  re- 
sulting in  the  saving  of  fuel.  ThL«; 'valve  gear  will  stand  hard 
usage  that  it  is  bound  to  get  under  heavy  freight  service,  as 
has  been  proven  in  a  series  of  dynamometer  car  tests. 


314 


VALVE 


GEAR  315 

Directions  for  Setting  and  Adjusting  Southern  Locomotive 
Valve  Oear. — The  dead  centers  are  found  in  the  usual  way, 
and  the  valve  gear  assembled  according  to  elevation,  with  ec- 
centric crank  of  proper  length  and  set  so  that  the  pin  travels 
in  an  18-inch  circle  and  the  reverse  shaft  arms  stand  vertical 
while  the  reverse  lever  is  in  center  position  of  quadrant  and 
the  link  set  in  position  shown  on  the  elevation,  and  securely 
clamped;  also  that  the  auxiliary  reach  rods  have  been  adjusted 
to  bring  the  link  block  in  the  center  of  the  link  while  the 
reverse  lever  is  in  middle  position. 

Diagram  No.  1  shows  an  ideal  valve  gear,  with  all  parts 
of  proper  dimensions  and  properly  located  and  adjusted.  This 
gear  will  have  a  uniform  lead  at  both  front  and  back  ports. 

Full  lines  show  the  position  of  eccentric  crank  for  outside 
admission,  and  dotted  lines  show  the  same  for  inside  admission. 

For  outside  admission,  the  eccentric  crank  leads  the  main 
crank  pin,  but  for  inside  admission,  it  follows  the  main  crank 
pin. 

Diagram  No.  2  shows  a  derangement  of  valve  gear  caused 
by  a  long  eccentric  crank.  A  long  eccentric  crank  pulls  the 
radius  hanger  center  "D"  back  to  "E"  while  engine  is  on  for- 
ward dead  center,  and  thrusts  same  forward  to  "F"  when 
engine  is  on  back  dead  center.  This  increases  the  lead  in 
forward  motion,  and  decreases  the  lead  in  back  motion. 

Although  the  eccentric  crank  be  of  correct  length,  the  same 
derangement  will  occur  if  eccentric  pin  does  not  have  a  full 
travel  of  18  inches;  a  short  eccentric  crank,  or  one  having 
more  than  18  inches  travel,  will  have  just  the  opposite  effect 
to  that  caused  by  the  first  case,  viz:  the  lead  will  be  decreased 
in  forward  motion  and  increased  in  back  motion.  The  effect 
for  inside  admission  is  just  the  opposite  in  both  cases. 

Diagram  No.  3  shows  the  method  of  correcting  derangement 
shown  on  diagram  No.  2.  First  test  full  travel  of  center  "D" 
as  follows:  take  a  tram  "T"  of  sufficient  length;  place  one  leg 
in  center  "Dl",  and  with  the  other  leg  "dl"  scrjbe  arc  "C". 
While  main  crank  pin  is  passing  through  bottom  quarter, 
eccentric  crank  will  pass  through  position  shown  on  the 
diagram,  and  this  will  give  the  extreme  travel  of  the  center 
"D"  back. 


316 


VALVE 


GEAR 


317 


318  VALVE 

Then  with  the  same  tram  "Tl",  with  leg  In  center  '  D2" 
with  the  other  leg  "d2",  scribe  an  arc  "CI",  while  engl  je  1b 
passing  through  top  quarter  and  eccentric  crank  is  paising 
through  position  shown  on  diagram.  This  will  give  the  extreme 
travel  forward  of  the  center  "D".  If  the  distance  between  the 
arcs  "c"  and  "cl"  measures  18  inches,  the  travel  of  the  center 
"D"  is  correct;  if  more  or  less  than  18  inches,  move  the  eccen- 
tric crank  pin  inward  or  outward  the  necessary  amount  to 
secure  18  inches  travel.  Then  try  for  correct  length  of  eccen- 
tric arm  as  follows:  Set  engine  on  forward  dead  center  and 
with  tram  "T2",  one  leg  in  center  "D",  with  the  other  leg  "d" 
scribe  an  arc  as  shown,  say  the  center  arc  between  "a"  and 
"b",  then  turn  engine  over  on  back  dead  center  and  with  one 
leg  of  tram  "T2"  in  center  "D"  as  before,  scribe  another  arc;  if 
this  arc  comes  line  in  line  with  the  first  center  arc,  the  eccentric 
crank  is  O.  K.  But  if  the  first  arc,  scribed  while  engine  was 
on  forward  dead  center  should  fall  at  "a"  and  the  second  arc, 
scribed  while  engine  was  on  back  dead  center  should  fall  at 
"b",  for  outside  admission  this  would  show  that  the  eccentric 
crank  was  too  long  and  would  have  to  be  shortened  about  one- 
fourth  the  difference  between  arcs  "a"  and  "b";  also  the  eccen- 
tric pin  would  have  to  be  moved  away  from  the  center  of  main 
axle  in  order  to  secure  full  travel  of  18  inches  of  center  "D". 

If  the  first  arc,  scribed  while  engine  was  on  forward  dead 
center,  should  fall  at  "b",  and  the  second  arc,  scribed  while 
engine  was  on  back  dead  center,  should  fall  at  "a",  for  outside 
admission  this  would  show  that  the  eccentric  crank  was  too 
short,  and  it  would  have  to  be  lengthened  about  one-fourth  the 
difference  between  arcs  "a"  and  "b"  and  eccentric  pin  moved 
In  toward  main  axle  to  obtain  18  inches  travel  of  center  "D". 

Of  course,  for  inside  admission,  the  reverse  process  would 
have  to  be  followed  for  lengthening  and  shortening  the  eccen- 
tric crank.  Diagram  No.  4  shows  the  valve  gear  with  a  properly 
located  link;  the  names  of  the  different  parts  of  the  gear  are 
also  shown. 

Diagram  No.  5  shows  the  effect  of  link  being  improperly 
set,  with  the  link  too  far  ahead  and  engine  on  either  center. 
When  link  is  moved  forward,  the  valve  will  be  pulled  back; 
When  the  link  is  too  far  back  and  the  link  block  moved  for- 


GEAR 


319 


320  VALVE 

ward,  the  valve  will  be  pushed  ahead.  Remedy:  It  the  valve 
moves  in  the  same  direction  as  the  link  block,  move  the  link 
forward;  if  the  valve  moves  in  opposite  direction  to  the  link 
block,  move  the  link  back  until  a  position  is  found  where  the 
link  block  can  be  moved  full  sweep  in  the  link  when  engine 
is  on  either  dead  center  without  moving  the  valve.  Then  drill 
the  eight  holes  in  link  support  and  bolt  the  link  down. 

Then  try  cut-off  and  make  changes  in  valve  rods  to  square 
cut-off.  If  the  valves  are  reported  out  after  engine  has  been 
in  service  several  months,  raise  links  by  applying  liners  under 
both  ends  of  links,  which  will  remedy  the  trouble. 

NOTE:  An  ideal  steam  distribution  cannot  be  obtained 
without  first  having  an  engine  with  the  crank  pins  correctly 
quartered  and  main  crank  (or  stroke)  the  exact  length.  Any 
variation  in  one  or  both  of  these  points  will  cause  a  derange- 
ment in  the  movement  of  the  valve. 

In  case  elevation  shows  a  less  or  greater  circle  than  18 
Inches  for  eccentric  crank  pin  to  scribe,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  set  eccentric  crank  to  scribe  circle  shown  on  elevation^ 


GEAR 


321 


322 


VALVn 


It 

Uj  ^  u 

Ocsb      ^^ 


2: 


322A  GEAR  322A 


QUESTIONS   AND    ANSWERS 

Q.  1.    Give  a  brief  description  of  the  Southern  Valve  Gear. 

A.  1.  This  is  an  outside  valve  gear;  the  valve  receives  its 
motion  from  an  eccentric  crank,  or  main  pin,  and  differs  from 
other  outside  gears,  in  that  the  valve  receives  its  motion  direct 
from  the  eccentric  rod  and  has  no  cross  head  connections. 

Q.  2.  In  what  particular  way  does  this  valve  gear  differ 
from  other  outside  valve  gears? 

A.  2.  By^  reason  of  its  having  no  cross  head  connection  and 
the  link  being  stationary. 

Q.  3.  What  should  be  done  in  case  of  a  broken  main  reach 
rod? 

A.  3.  Block  the  link  blocks  both  sides  at  suitable  cut  off  to 
start  and  handle  train,  using  a  block  on  each  side  of  the  link 
block  in  link. 

Q.  4.  What  should  be  done  for  a  broken  auxiliary  reach 
rod,  or  tumbling  shaft  arm? 

A.  4.  Block  the  link  block  on  the  disabled  side  at  a  suitable 
cut  off  to  handle  train. 

Q.  5.  How  would  you  disconnect  for  a  broken  eccentric 
crank  or  rod? 

A.  5.  Remove  the  broken  parts,  block  the  valve  with  pcfrts 
covered,  secure  the  radius  hanger  and  transmission  yoke  and 
proceed  on  one  side. 

Q.  6.  What  disconnection  should  be  made  in  case  of  a 
broken  bell  crank? 

A.  6.  If  valve  rod  connection,  remove  broken  parts;  if 
transmission  yoke  connection,  remove  the  transmission  yoke, 
block  the  valve  with  ports  covered  in  both  cases. 

Q.  7.  What  would  you  do  in  case  of  a  broken  radius 
hanger? 

A.  7.  Remove  the  eccentric  rod,  secure  the  transmission 
yoke  from  swinging  and  block  the  valve  with  ports  covered. 

Q.  8.  What  provision  should  be  made  for  lubricating  cylin- 
ders where  valves  are  blocked  with  steam  ports  covered,  with 
main  rod  not  connected? 

A.  8.  If  indicator  plugs  are  provided,  would  remove  them 
and  lubricate  through  openings;  if  no  indicator  plugs,  would 
Black  off  on  cylinder  head  and  secure  it  in  position  to  lubricate 
through  opening. 


CHAPTER    iX. 

COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES — INTRODUCTORY. 


Note — In  regard  to  the  merits  of  the  compound  cylinder  as 
compared  with  the  single-expansion,  I  do  not  desire  nor  profess 
to  express  anj- opinion.  I  merely  wish  to  describe  the  compound 
cylinder  in  what  follows,  and,  if  in  some  places  preference  seems 
to  be  expressed,  it  is  the  claim  of  builders  and  not  mine.  Those 
who  use  locomotives  must  themselves  be  the  judges  of  the  re- 
spective merits  of  single-expansion  and  compound  cylinders  and 
of  the  particular  pattern  they  want. 

M.  M.  K. 


In  view  of  the  fact  that  thfe  Compound  Loco- 
motive is  of  comparative!}"  recent  introduction  as 
compared  with  the  single-expansion  cylinder,  its 
construction  and  working  are  less  understood  by 
those  connected  with  the  equipment  department 
of  railroads.  These  particulars  I  have,  for  that 
reason,  thought  it  best  to  embody  here.  More 
and  more  attention  is  beiug  given  to  the  expan- 
sive use  of  steam  in  connection  with  the  locomo- 
tive. It  is  claimed  not  to  be  unreasonable  in 
view  of  the  triple  and  the  quadruple  expansion  of 
steam  (expansion  in  three  and  four  cylinders) 
in  the  most  approved  stationary  and  marine  en- 
gines that  it  should  be  possible  to  devise  practical 
means  of  obtaining  double  expansion,  at  least,  in 
a  locomotive.     Because  of  the  more  or  less  gen- 

(323) 


324         ENGINEERS'  .iNB  FIREMENS  MANUAL. 

eral  introduction  of  compound  cylinders,  some 
account  of  the  working  of  the  compound  locomo- 
tive is  becoming  every  day  more  and  more  neces- 
sary to  those  connected  with  the  machinery  and 
equipment  of  railroads.  Indeed,  practical  famil- 
iarity with  the  working  of  compound  engines 
may  be  said  to  have  become,  in  a  measure,  a 
necessary  part  of  the  knowledge  of  every  engi- 
neer and  firemen,  for  the  reason  that  their  duties 
may  at  any  time,  through  promotion  or  other- 
wise, take  them  to  roads  where  some  form  of 
compound  locomotive  is  extensively  used.  More- 
over, it  is  well  that  their  attention  be  especially 
directed  to  the  subject  in  order  that  it  may 
have  the  consideration  and  scrutiny  at  their 
hands  which  its  growing  importance  justifies  and 
their  practical  knowledge  is  likely  to  render  so 
valuable. 

It  is  not  surprising,  inasmuch  as  the  opinions 
of  engineers  and  firemen  respecting  the  opera- 
tion of  simple  engines  differ  so  widely,  that  there 
should  be  much  controversy  among  them  in  re- 
gard to  the  operation  of  compound  locomotives. 
Experience  on  the  part  of  those  operating  the 
compound  locomotive  will  tend  to  its  better 
service  and  consequently  greater  development. 
Many  prejudices  against  it  are  due  to  lack  of  ac- 
quaintance with  its  operation.  This  is  true  of 
every  new  thing.  Especially  is  it  true  in  the 
case  of  compounds  where  a  railway  has  few  loco- 
motives of  this  kind.  The  feeling  is  but  natural, 
if  we  remeinber,  as  we  should,  that  in  the  handling 


COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  325 

of  their  engine  the  reputation  of  the  engineer 
and  fireman  is  at  stake.  The  opportunity  af- 
forded them  for  handling  and  studying  any  odd 
engine,  compound  or  otherwise,  is  necessarily 
limited.  Moreover,  in  the  operation  of  such  lo- 
comotive, it  is  possible  they  may  be  impressed 
with  the  unhandy,  because  unusual,  cab  arrange- 
ments. Naturally,  they  are  filled  with  appre- 
hension, lest  some  accident  might  occur  and 
they  be  found  ignorant  of  what  should  be  done 
to  temporarily  repair  the  engine  and  bring  it  in. 
If  a  considerable  number  of  the  locomotives  of  a 
railroad  are  compounds  of  similar  class,  the  men 
handling  them  become  accustomed  to  their  opera- 
tion and  this  fear  disappears.  It  is  Avith  a  view 
to  the  practical  usefulness  these  pages  may  have 
for  engineers,  firemen,  and  others  interested  in 
the  operation  of  compounds,  that  the  descrip- 
tions herein  are  elaborated  to  the  extent  they  are. 
The  plan  followed  with  each  class  of  compound 
locomotives  is,  first,  to  give  a  general  description 
of  its  operation,  succeeded  by  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  its  technical  parts.  This  is  done  that  the 
reader  may,  in  the  first  instance,  if  he  desires, 
learn  of  the  general  arrangement  of  each  class 
without  the  details,  and  afterwards,  at  his  leisure, 
he  may  apply  himself  to  the  particular  class  or 
classes  that  most  interest  him.  Following  the 
description  of  each  class  of  compounds  will  be 
found,  in  catechetical  form,  information  relating 
to  its  operation  in  case  of  any  ordinary  derange- 
ment of  its  parts  when  the  methods  of  procedure 
will  differ  from  those  in  case  of  similar  accidents 


326  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

to  simple  locomotives,  as  outlined  in  the  manual. 
It  is  said  that  reforms  must  pass  through 
three  stages:  ridicule,  argument,  and  adoption. 
The  compound  has  been  subjected  to  the  first 
and  second  of  these  epochs,  and  it  may  be  as- 
sumed to  have  reached  the  last  stage  mentioned. 
Like  every  part  of  a  railroad,  it  is  still  in  a  state  of 
evolution.  I  know  of  no  preference  in  regard  to 
compounds  that  is  proper  to  express  here.  The 
order  of  description  has,  therefore,  no  signifi- 
cance. In  the  description  of  the  various  types  I 
have  endeavored  to  eliminate  all  matter  that 
does  not  pertain  directly  to  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  of  compounding,  as  de- 
scriptions relating  to  other  parts  of  the  locomo- 
tive are  to  be  found  elsewhere  in  "The  Science 
OF  Railways."  In  relation  to  the  descriptions 
of  the  compound,  I  wish  to  say  that  I  am  in- 
debted in  a  marked  manner  to  Mr.  E.  W.  Pratt, 
whose  familiarity  with  the  construction  and 
working  of  locomotives  and  the  appliances  of  the 
latter  makes  him  an  authority  of  the  highest  or- 
der in  regard  to  all  such  matters.  I  am  in- 
debted to  him  in  many  other  ways  and  it  affords 
me  much  gratification  to  be  able  to  acknowledge 
it  thus  conspicuously. 


CHAPTER   X. 

COMPOUND     LOCOMOTIVES  —  GENERAL    DESCRIPTION 

COMPARISON     WITH     SIMPLE     LOCOMOTIVES. 

A  compound  locomotive  is  one  in  which  the 
exhaust  from  one  or  more  cylinders  is  passed 
into  one  or  more  other  cylinders  and  made  to  do 
more  work  by  further  expansion  before  it  is  al- 
lowed to  escape  to  the  atmosphere.  In  stationary 
and  marine  service  the  principle  of  compounding 
has  long  since  passed  its  experimental  stage  and, 
following  the  replacement  of  the  single-expansion 
engine  by  the  double-expansion  type,  came  the 
era  of  high  boiler  pressures  with  triple  and  even 
quadruple-expansion  engines  in  marine  service. 
It  was  long  thought  by  many,  and  is  still  held 
by  some,  that,  although  compounding  of  steam 
in  marine  and  stationary  engines  was  a  great 
economy  due  to  the  use  of  the  condenser,*  on 
locomotives  where  condensers  were  impractic- 
able, the  compound  locomotive  would  not  be  able 
to  gain  sufficient  advantage  over  the  simple 
engine  to  warrant  its  general  use. 

Without  any  attempt  to  pass  judgment  upon 
the  relative  value  of  the  points  put  forward  for 
and  against  compound  locomotives,  I  will  out- 


*A  condenser  is  a  chamber  into  which  the  final  exhaust  of  an 
engine  takes  place  and  in  which  the  steam  is  cooled  and  con- 
densed, either  by  a  jet  of  water  or  by  contact  .with  sheets  or 
tubes  having  cold  water  circulation  on  their  opposite  sides. 
These  two  forms  of  condensers  are  termed  "jet  condenser"  and 
"surface  condenser,"  respectively. 

(327:) 


328  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

line  some  of  the  claims  made  by  their  advocates 
and  also  some  of  the  practical  objections  met 
with  in  their  use,  many  of  which  objections 
have  been  largely  overcome  in  the  later 
designs. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  locomotive 
is  not  a  steam  engine  merely,  but  consists  of  a 
boiler  as  well,  and  must  also  carry  water  and  fuel 
for  its  own  demands. 

The  first  advantage  of  the  compound  over  the 
simple  locomotive  comes  from  its  greater  economy 
in  fuel,  resulting  primarily  from  the  saving  in 
steam.  There  is,  however,  a  secondary  saving,  pro- 
duced by  the  less  violent  effect  of  the  exhaust  upon 
the  fire  and  also  the  economical  use  of  high  boiler 
pressures  in  compound  engines. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  high  boiler  pres- 
sures, say  above  180  pounds,  which  have  been 
found  very  economical  (especially  in  the  space 
occupied  per  horse  power  developed)  in  station- 
ary and  marine  engines,  are  not  a  source  of  econ- 
omy with  the  type  of  single-expansion  locomotives 
in  use  in  this  country,  due  to  the  extreme  ranges 
of  temperature  within  a  single  cylinder  and  the 
consequent  condensation.  Also,  locomotive  cylin- 
ders and  their  steam  ports  are,  not  well  protected, 
and  compounding  the  cylinders  renders  the  varia- 
tions of  temperature  in  each  cylinder  less  wide, 
and  thus  makes  practicable  the  use  of  higher  pres- 
sure. With  the  use  of  steel  in  place  of  iron  for 
boiler  construction,  and  also  on  account  of  the 
excellent  care  and  inspection  given  all  locomo- 
tive boilers,  there  is  no  material  increase  of  firs^ 


COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  329 

cost  or  for  maintenance  of  high-pressure  boilers. 
In  simple  locomotives  the  exhaust  produces 
such  a  violent  draft  upon  the  fire  that  great 
quantities  of  unconsumed  fuel  are  drawn  from 
the  fire-box  and  thrown  from  the  stack.  This  is 
not  alone  a  waste  of  fuel,  but  cinders  entering 
the  open  car  windows  are  a  source  of  great  an- 
noyance to  passengers,  while,  before  the  use  of 
the  compound  locomotive  in  the  service  of  subur- 
ban railways,  the  noise  of  the  exhaust  had  to  be 
overcome  by  means  of  mufflers,  which  became 
quickly  choked  up  and  produced  a  high  back- 
pressure on  the  pistons,  resulting  in  the  loss  of 
from  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  power. 

The  throwing  of  sparks  from  the  stack  is  not 
only  a  source  of  annoyance,  but  frequently  re- 
sults in  heavy  losses  from  damage  by  fire  in  tim- 
ber and  agricultural  districts,  and  this  is  largely, 
if  not  entirely,  overcome  by  the  compound 
locomotive. 

The  heating  surfaces  of  any  given  boiler  absorb 
heat  from  the  fire  and  deliver  it  to  the  water  at 
a  certain  rate.  If  the  rate  at  which  the  products 
of  combustion  are  carried  away  exceeds  this  rate 
of  absorption,  there  will  be  a  continual  waste 
that  can  only  be  overcome  by  reducing  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  products  of  combustion.  In  the  com- 
pound locomotive  this  is  effected  by  the  milder 
exhaust.  It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  by 
experiment,  that  a  milder  exhaust  and  conse- 
quently a  slower  rate  of  combustion  produces  a 
greater  evaporation  of  water  per  pound  of  fuel. 

The  milder  exhaust  is,  of  course,  the  result  of  a 


330 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


lower  back-pressure  and  thereby  permits  a  greater 
effective  power  on  the  piston. 

There  is  also  found  to  be  considerable  reduction 
in  cylinder  condensation,  owing  to  the  relatively 
5mall  variation  of  temperatures  in  each  cylinder 
as  compared  with  single-expansion  engines.  In 
any  engine  the  walls  of  the  cylinder,  one  cylinder- 
head,  and  one  side  of  the  piston  are  cooled  to  the 
temperature  of  the  exhaust  steam  during  each 
stroke,  and  the  live  steam,  again  entering,  must 

Tiff.  J. 


i  Stmm  jstroK*  ■  ■^Stnhe  ruUStrM 


Length  or  Stroke 


reheat  them  to  Its  own  temperature,  thus  con- 
densing and  requiring  additional  steam- to  flow  in 
and  take  its  place.  In  the  compound  this  total 
range  of  temperature  is  divided  between  the  high 
and  the  low-pressure  cylinders,  and  thus  the  vari- 
ation and  consequent  condensation  in  each  cylin- 
der is  less. 

The  saving  of  steam  results  in  the  saving  of 


COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  331 

both  water  and  fuel.  The  economy  in  fuel  can 
be  directly  reduced  to  dollars  and  cents,  while 
that  resulting  from  the  saving  of  water  is  more 
indirect.  In  bad  water  districts,  the  reduction 
of  from  15  to  20  per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  water 
used,  necessitates  less  frequent  washings-out  of 
the  boiler  and  must  result  in  greater  life  and 
diminished  repairs  to  boiler  and  flues.  Moreover, 
as  its  carrying  capacity  of  water  limits  the  dis- 
tance that  a  locomotive  can  run  without  stopping 
(or  slowing  up,  where  track-tanks  are  used),  it  is 
evident  that  the  compound  locomotive  would  have 
an  advantage  in  this  respect.  Fig.  1  besides 
showing  the  most  economical  point  of  cut-off  for 
simple  and  compound  engines,  as  far  as  the- use 
of  water  is  concerned,  clearly  shows  the  relatively 
smaller  amount  of  water  used  by  the  compound 
per  indicated  horse  power. 

No  locomotive  can  haul  more  than  its  adhesion 
to  the  rails  will  permit,  aud  hence  the  tractive 
power  of  an  engine  is  based  upon  whatever  the 
adhesion  to  the  rails  may  be.  This  is  determined 
by  practical  experiment.  With  a  fairly  dry  rail, 
a  turning  force  of  more  than  one-fifth,  or  20  per 
cent.,  of  the  weight  of  the  drivers  on  the  rails, 
will  cause  the  wheels  to  slip;  a  perfectly  dry  rail 
will  permit  of  a  tractive  power  of  about  one- 
fourth,  or  25  per  cent.,  of  the  weight  on  the 
drivers;  a  well  sanded  dry  rail  will  allow  one- 
third,  or  33^  per  cent.,  while  a  bad  frosty  rail 
will  permit  less  than  half  this  last  amount. 
Where  all  the  driving  wheels  are  connected,  it 
matters  not,  of  course,  whether  this  force  is  ap- 


332  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

plied  by  one  or  many  cylinders,  but,  if  the  power 
is  not  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  revo- 
lution and  becomes  sufficiently  excessive  at  any 
one  point  to  cause  the  wheels  to  slip,  a  very 
much  less  power  will  thereafter  keep  them  slip- 
ping. It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  adhesion,  and 
consequently  the  tractive  power  of  a  locomotive^ 
is  very  much  reduced  after  the  wheels  begin  to 
slip.* 

It  is  claimed  for  the  compound,  that,  as  the 
average  cut-off  is  later  in  both  cylinders  than  for 
simple  engines,  the  turning  power  is  more  uni- 
form throughout  the  revolution,  and  hence  heavier 
trains  can  be  hauled  than  with  the  single-expan- 
sion engine.  Then,  too,  while  it  would  be  un- 
economical at  other  times  to  design  a  simple 
engine  with  cylinders  sufficiently  large  to  develop 
so  high  a  tractive  power  as  33i  per  cent,  at  slow 
gpeeds,  this  can  be  done  with  compound  loco- 
motives of  the  "convertible"  type  without  loss 
in  economy  under  ordinary  speeds  of  service, 
when  working  compound. 

A  saving  of  oil  has  been  one  of  the  minor  econ- 
omies claimed  to  be  incidental  to  the  use  of  com- 
pound locomotives.  It  is  generally  thought  that 
from  six  to  ten  drops  of  valve  oil  per  minute  are 
required  to  be  supplied  with  the  steam  in  order 
to  properly  lubricate  a  valve  and  cylinder.     This 


*Every  engineer  knows  this  and  puts  his  knowledge  into  prac- 
tice when  on  a  very  slippery  rail  by  opening  the  throttle  very 
slightly  and  leaving  the  valve  in  full  gear,  thus  distributing  the 
pressure  more  uniformly  throughout  the  stroke  than  would  be 
the  case  with  a  shorter  cut-off. 


COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  332 

oil  is  supplied  to  the  high-pressure  cylinder  only, 
and  hence,  in  the  two-cylinder  class  of  com- 
pounds, a  saving  has  been  effected  in  many  cases. 

Comparative  tests  of  greater  or  less  duration 
have  been  made  by  various  railways,  between 
compound  and  simple  locomotives  of  otherwise 
similar  construction,  and  the  results  obtained  by 
the  different  experimenters  are  widely  at  vari- 
ance. In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  re- 
ported saving  in  fuel  with  the  compound  is  about 
ten  per  cent,  in  fast  passenger  and  20  per  cent, 
in  heavy  freight  service,  although  figures  double 
the  latter  have  frequently  been  given.* 

Later  designs  of  compound  locomotives,  arranged 
to  be  worked  simple  at  the  will  of  the  engineer,  will 
temporarily  pull  a  heavier  train  than  a  simple 
engine  of  otherwise  like  design.  When  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  ruling  grade  on  a  division  is  the 
governing  factor  for  the  maximum  rating  of 
through  trains  over  the  whole  division,  it  will  be 
seen  that  a  locomotive  capable  of  enough  greater 
power  to  haul  an  additional  car  or  two  up  that 
grade,  produces  more  economical  service  for  the 
whole  division. 

Leaky  valves  and  cylinder  packing  are  less 
wasteful  in  a  compound  than  in  a  simple  engine. 
Steam  leaking  by  the  valve  or  packing  of  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  is  still  worked  expansively 


*Fast  freight  service  will  more  nearly  compare  with  express 
passenger  service  and  the  saving  will  be  less  than  in  heavy  slow 
freight  service,  on  account  of  the  simple  engine  using  steam 
more  expansively  in  the  former  service  than  in  the  latter.  This 
is  more  fully  brought  out  elsewhere.  * 


334  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

in  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  Then,  too,  the  dif- 
ference of  pressure  between  the  two  sides  of  the 
valves  and  pistons  is  less  than  for  simple  engines, 
and  the  wear  should  be  consequently  less. 

On  the  other  hand  many  serious  practical  ob- 
jections hav^e  been  raised.  The  large  cylinders 
greatly  increased  the  weight  of  the  reciprocating 
imrts.*  This  mast  be  followed  by  heavier  coun- 
ter-balancef  weights  and  their  accompanying 
evils.  J  Also  larger  ports  and  consequently  larger 
valves  must  be  provided  for  the  large  cylinders. 
Inasmuch  as  considerable  diflBculty  w^as  formerly 
experienced  in  obtaining  admission  and  exhaust 
ports  of  sufficient  size  for  the  cylinders  of 
large  high-speed  single-expansion  engines,  it  is 
not  remarkable  that  there  should  have  been  con- 
siderable trouble  experienced  from  this  source  in 
designing  ports  for  the  much  larger  cylinders  of 
the  compound  locomotive. 

In  connection  with  these  last  two  points,  the 
weight  of  reciprocating  parts  and  the  port  re- 


*By  the  reciprocating  parts  is  meant  those  parts  that  have  a 
forward  and  back  (or  reciprocating)  motion.  This  includes  the 
pistons  and  piston-rods,  tlie  cross-heads  and  a  certain  part  of 
the  main.  rods. 

fThe  counter-balance  is  the  balance  weight  placed  in  the 
wheel  at  a  point  opposite  the  crank  pin.    (See  No.  240,  Plate  I.) 

JThe  counter-balance  weights  act  at  all  points  of  the  revolu- 
tion, having  an  outward  or  centrifugal  tendency  from  the  center 
of  the  wheel  that  is  great  at  high  speeds,  and  is  only  counter- 
acted when  the  engine  is  passing  the  front  and  back  centers.  At 
other  points  it  produces  an  upward  tendency  upon  the  engine 
when  moving  up  and  a  downward  blow  upon  the  rails  when 
moving  down. 


COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  335 

quirements,  let  us  see  for  one  moment  what  the 
requirements  for  high  speed  are.  Take  an  engine 
with  a  five  foot  driving  wheel  and  a  twenty-four 
inch  stroke,  traveling  at  the  not  unusual  rate  of 
a  mile  a  minute.  This  requires  336  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  means  that  the  piston  starts  and 
stops  672  times,  and  with  all  its  stopping  and 
starting  travels  1344  feet  per  minute.  At  mid- 
stroke  the  piston  speed  is  about  35  feet  per  second 
or  24  miles  per  hour.  To  the  average  railway 
man  high  speeds  are  so  common  that  I  can  think- 
of  no  better  way  to  show  the  full  meaning  of 
these  figures  than  to  compare  them  with  those  of 
a  falling  body  acted  upon  by  gravity.  A  falling 
body  at  the  end  of  the  first  second  is  traveling  at 
the  rate  of  32  feet  per  second,  or  about  22  miles 
per  hour,  and  in  gaining  this  speed  the  body  has 
fallen  some  16  feet,  through  which  distance  the 
continued  action  of  gravity  has  produced  this  not 
inconsiderable  acceleration,  while  in  the  case  of 
the  piston  of  the  locomotive  in  question,  the  still 
greater  speed  of  24  miles  per  hour  must  not  only 
be  attained  by  the  time  the  piston  has  reached 
the  middle  of  its  stroke,  or  in  one  foot,  but  also 
it  must  be  exerting  great  additional  propelling 
power  on  the  crank  pins.  The  steam  in  front  of 
this  rapidly  moving  piston  must  be  exhausted 
freely  or  there  would  be  no  effective  power  to 
maintain  the  speed.  Where  the  reciprocating  parts 
weigh  nearly  a  thousand  pounds,  it  will  be  seen 
what  enormous  power  is  required  to  stop  and 
start  them  without  jar  or  shock  to  the  loco- 
motive, and  also  the  size   of  ports  required  to 


336  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

freely  exhaust  the  pressure  ahead  of  and  freely 
supply  steam  behind  the  very  large  pistons  of 
compound  locomotives.  With  any  of  the  several 
types  of  valve  gear  used  in  locomotive  practice 
to-day,  it  goes  without  saying  that  no  compound 
can  be  relatively  so  efficient,  in  comparison  with 
single-expansion  engines,  in  express  passenger  as 
in  freight  service,  for  the  reasons  hereinbefore 
described.  When  many  single-expansion  loco- 
motives with  moderately  large  ports  require  a  ve- 
locity of  steam  through  their  ports  of  over  1,000 
feet  per  second,  it  can  better  be  imagined  than 
told  what  the  port  requirements  are  for  the  large 
low-pressure  cylinder  on  a  compound.  It  is  gen- 
erally considered  that  for  express  passenger  serv- 
ice the  low-pressure  cylinders  should  not  be  so 
large  in  proportion  to  the  high-pressure  cylinders 
as  for  freight  service. 

Many  of  the  earlier  compounds  in  this  country 
suffered  in  comparative  tests  with  simple  engines 
of  otherwise  similar  design,  by  having  cylinders 
of  too  small  a  size  to  do  the  same  work  as  the 
simple  engine.  While  they  did  their  work  with 
economy,  they  would  not  haul  the  heavy  trains 
of  the  simple  engines,  and  their  supposed  capacity 
had  to  be  reduced,  to  the  annoyance  of  those  en- 
gaged in  the  operating  of  trains.  Since  then,  with 
the  advent  of  larger  cylinders  and  the  "convert- 
ible" class  of  compounds,  the  conditions  have 
become  altered. 

With  any  locomotive,  when  steam  is  shiit  off, 
as  in  running  down  grade,  the  pistons  act  as  air 
compressors,  causing  thumping,  rough  riding,  and 


COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.  337 

cooling  of  the  cylinders,  as  well  as  a  strong  draft 
in  the  stack  at  a  time  when  no  steam  and  little 
draft  are  required,  and  thus  produce  a  waste  of 
fuel.  The  large  low-pressure  cylinders  of  the 
compound  have  greatly  magnified  this  evil,  and 
several  builders  have  overcome  it  by  the  use  of 
automatic  valves  on  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  by 
which  the  two  sides  of  the  low-pressure  piston  are 
connected  whenever  the  locomotive  is  drifting. 

After  closing  the  throttle,  an  engine  working 
compound  will  make  several  strokes  before  all 
steam  is  finally  exhausted.  This  delaj^  in  clear- 
ing the  cj'linders  of  steam,  placed  compound 
locomotives  to  considerable  disadvantage  in 
switching  or  like  service;  also,  in  such  sersace, 
accustomed  to  gauge  the  speed  by  the  exhaust 
of  the  engine,  trainmen  were  often  deceived  by 
the  less  frequent  exhaust  of  the  two-cylinder  com- 
pound. The  employment  of  the  separate  high- 
pressure  exhaust,  whereby  the  engine  can  be  run 
simple  at  the  will  of  the  engineer,  it  appears, 
has  overcome  these  objections  from  an  operating 
standpoint. 

Many  of  the  earlier  forms  of  intercepting  valves 
were  of  the  poppet  tj^pe  and  hammered  badly  in 
opening  or  closing.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these 
valves  in  the  later  designs  are  of  the  piston  type 
and  are  almost  invariably  cushioned  by  dash-pots 
connected  thereto,  or  some  other  equally  effective 
means. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  the  breakage  and  loosen- 
ing of  the  large  low-pressure  cylinders  have  been 
considerably  done  away  with  by  the  use  of  proper 

12  voi  12 


338  ENGINEERS'  ^INI)  FIREMEN S  MANUAL. 

reducing  valves  and  a  better  attachment  of  cylin 
ders  to  the  frame,  the  use  of  double  front  rails  f o» 
the  latter  being  particularly  noticeable  in  modern 
construction  of  large  locomotives. 

Thus  it  is  that  improvements  in  design  and  con- 
struction are  continually  taking  place,  and  the 
upholders  of  the  great  principle  of  con>pounding 
will  certainly  witness  their  more  extensive  adapta- 
tion to  all  classes  of  service. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


CLASSES      OF      COMPOUND     LOCOMOTIVES     AND     THEIR 
GENERAL  CONSTRUCTION DIFFERENT  TYPES. 


There  are  many  classes  of  compound  locomo- 
tives in  use.  First,  the  strict h/  plain  compound, 
where  no  live  steam  is  admitted  to  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinder,  even  in  starting.  The  Webb  three- 
cylinder  compounds  (with  cylinders  arranged  as 
outlined  in  Fig.  6,)  which  are  usually  without 
connecting  rods — the  two  high-pressure  cylin- 
ders turning   the  rear  pair  of  driving  wheels  by 

two  outside  cranks  while 
the  low-pressure  cylinder 
turns  the  forward  drivers 
by  means  of  an  inside 
crank  —  belong  to  this 
class  and  are  used  in  con- 
siderable numbers  on  the 
London  &  North-Western 
of  England.  They  are  not 
powerful  in  starting,  as 
the  driving  wheels  acted 
upon  by  the  high-pressure  cylinders  must  turn, 
either  by  slipping  or  moving  the  train,  before 
steam  enters  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 

Second,  automatic  compounds — those  using  live 
steam  in  the  low-pressure  cylinder  in  starting 
only,  automatically  changing  to  compound  with 
the  first  stroke,  and  thereafter  cannot  be  run  ex- 
cept as  compounds. 

(339) 


340 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


The  third  class  can  be  run  simple  or  compou.nd 
at  any  time  at  the  will  of  the  engineer  and  will 
be  termed  converfibh'  compoKmh. 

Each  of  these  principal  classes  may  have  two, 
three,  or  four  cylinders.  The  two-cylinder  or  "cross- 
compound"  always  has  an  intermediate  recepta- 
cle, called  a  receiver,*  between  the  high  and  low- 
pressure  cylinders,  while 
the  four- cylinder  en- 
gines may  or  may  not 
have  receivers  —  those 
with  both  pistons  at- 
tached to  the  same 
crosshead  generally 
have  not.  The  three 
systems  of  four-cylinder 
V^^y'    compounds  used  in  this 

Ij country  are  the  Baldwin 

^  rVauclain),  the  Brooks 

^  (Player),  and  the  John- 

Of  these,  the  Brooks  has  receivers,  while 


rO 


Fit 


stone. 


the  remaining  two  are  of  the  continuous  expan- 
sionf  type  and  have  no  receivers.  J 

*Tlie  receiver  is  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  exhaust  from 
the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  holding  it  until  the  engine  gets 
to  the  point  in  the  revolution  where  it  is  admitted  against  the 
low-pressure  piston.  Incidentally,  the  receiver  may  act  as  a  re- 
heater,  if  located  in  the  smoke-box,  as  is  usually  the  practice. 

fMeaning  expansion  without  any  pause  or  interruption  as  is 
the  case  when  a  receiver  is  interposed  between  the  high  and  the 
low-pressure  cylinders. 

Jin  Europe  the  Hungarian  State  Railvvays  employ  four-cylin- 
der tandem  compounds  with  one  receiver  into  which  I)oth 
high-pressure  cylinders  exhaust  and  from  which  both  low-pres- 
sure cylinders  receive  their  supply. 


CLASSES  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


341 


The  arrangement  of  cylinders  is  quite  varied, 
as  shown  by  the  several  skeleton  cuts.  There 
may  be  two  cylinders,  oneyhigh-pressure  and  one 
low-pressure,  as  outlined  in 
Figs.  1,  2  and  3,  one  high 
and  two  low-pressure,  as  in 
Figs.  4  and  5;  two  high-pres- 
sure and  one  low  into  which 
they  both  exhaust,  as  in  Fig. 
6;  two  high,  each  exhaust- 
ing independently  into  a 
low-pressure  cylinder  on 
the  same  side  of  the  engine, 
shown  in  Figs.  7,  8,  9  and 
10;  or  two  high  exhausting 
into  a  common  receiver 
from  which  both  low-pressure  cylinders  draw 
their  supply,  as  in  Figs.  11  and  12.  Aside  from 
%he  varied  arrangement  of  cylinders,  many  of 
the  European  designs 
employ  three  and  four 
cranks  and  use  no  side 
rods.  Some  French 
constructions,  retain- 
ing the  use  of  side 
rods,  employ  for  the 
high-pressure  cylinders 
two  inside  cranks  on 
one  driving  axle  at  an 
angle  with  the  low- 
pressure  cranks  on  a 
second  driving  axle, 
the  angle  between  the  cranks  being  such  as  to 


342         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


give  as  large  a  turning  power  as  possible,  for  all 

portions  of  the  revolution. 

It  is,  perhaps,  needless  to  say  that  the  wide 
variations  in  the  service 
of  American  locomotives 
demand  that  they  have  a 
large  starting  power  at  all 
points  of  the  stroke.  To 
obtain  this  starting  power, 

©""       ^  all    the     earlier    designs 

^.^^^  used  a  device  called  an  m- 
/jy^  tercepting  valve   that,  if 
V^^  closed  in  starting,  cut  off 
communication    between 
the  receiver  and  the  low- 
-pressure  cylinder  and  at 
the  same  time   admitted 


^^^. 


s. 


live  steam  to  the  low-pressure  side,  but  after  the 
first  exhaust  from  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  to 
the  receiver  took  place, 
the  pressure  in  the  latter 
automatically  shoved  open 
the  intercepting  valve  and 
simultaneously  shut  off 
the  further  supply  of  live 
steam  to  the  low-pressure 
cylinder.  Hence  these  en- 
gines belong  to  the  auto- 
matic class  of  compounds. 
Mr.  Anatole  Mallet,  who 
was  the  designer  of  the 
first  practical  compound  locomotives  in  Europe 


CLASSES  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


343 


in  1876,  was  also  the  first  to  devise  a  means  by 
which  a  compound  could  be  worked  as  a  simple 
locomotive  for  any  desired  period  at  the  will  of 
the  engineer.  This  was  accomplished  by  adding 
a  separate  exhaust  valve  through  which  the  ex- 
haust from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  could  escape 
to  the  atmosphere  without  accumulating  in  the 
receiver.  This  relieved  all  back  pressure  on  the 
high-pressure  piston  and  admitted  of  greater  power 
at  slow  speed  than  was  otherwise  obtained.* 
Many  objections  were  raised  to  placing  the 
operation  of  the  engine 
either  as  a  simple  or  as  a 
compound  in  the  hands 
of  the  engineer,  and  the 
fear  was  freely  expressed 
that  the  average  engineer 
would  run  the  locomotive 
to  its  disadvantage  in 
(  j:^.j^  simple  position  more  than 
V^^  enough  to  offset  the  sav- 
ly        ing  when   operated   as  a 

— ; "Z^ compound.    However,  one 

V*     ■  prominent  railroad  officer, 

m  placing  the  operation  of  the  valves  at  the  will 
of  the  engineer,  seemed  to  express  the  now  settled 
conviction  of  all,  when  he  said:  "To  argue  that  an 

*It  should  also  be  staled  that  not  only  were  the  automatic 
compounds  less  powerful,  at  slow  speeds  after  starting,  than 
simple  engines,  but,  except  in  the  case  of  four-cylinder  engines 
having  one  high  and  one  low-pressure  cylinder  on  the  same  side 
they  were  practically  helpless  in  case  of  a  broken  steam  chest 
on  either  side.  The  use  of  the  sepai'ate  exhaust  valve  has  greatly 
altered  the  conditions  in  these  cases. 


344  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

engineer  is  likely  to  work  simple  any  longer  than 
absolutely  necessary,  is  about  the  same  as  saying 
that  an  engineer  with  the  ordinary  engine  cannot 
be  trusted  to  pull  the  reverse  lever  up  as  soon  as 
possible." 

Later  practice  interposed,  within  or  near  the 
intercepting  valve,  a  reducing  valve,  which  is 
used  to  admit  live  steam,  at  a  reduced  pressure 
only,  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder  when  starting 
or   when    working    simple.     This    reduced    the 

abnormal  shocks  that  were 
produced  when  starting 
large  compounds  of  earlier 
design.  The  reducing 
valve,  the  intercepting 
valve,   and  the    separate 

©exhaust  valve  were  so 
closely  combined  in  many 
^^  cases  and  so  dependent, 
one  upon  the  other,  in 
their  operation,  that  it 
"became  the  tendency 
^•^'     '  among  railway  and    me- 

chanical men  to  refer  to  the  w^hole  mechanism 
simply  as  the  "intercepting  valve." 

While  the  limit  to  the  size  of  the  ordinary 
locomotive  may  be  considered  to  have  been 
reached  when  the  largest  practical  boiler  that  can 
be  placed  on  a  given  gauge  track  has  been  attained, 
the  limit  to  the  American  two-cylinder,  or  cross- 
compound,  with  outside  cranks  will  be  the  max- 
imum width  allowable  for  locomotives.  However, 
again  Mr.  Mallet,  the  father  of  the  present  era 


jf\ 


CLASSES  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


345 


of  compound  locomotives,  has  seemingly  solved 
the  problem  by  dividing  the  low-pressure  cylinder 
into  two  cylinders,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  of  smaller 
size  attached  to  the  same  crosshead.  With  such 
a  construction  it  would  appear  that  the  boiler 
would  still  be  the  limiting  feature  of  the  size  of 
the  compound  as  well  as  the  simple  locomotive. 
The  proper  cylinder  ratio  of  compounds  for  all 
varieties  of  service  is  still  somewhat  undeter- 
mined. By  the  cylinder  ratio  is  meant  the  propor- 
tion between  the  volumes  of  the  high  and  the 
low-pressure  cylinders,  not  including  the  clearance 


spaces.  In  American  practice  where  the  length 
of  stroke  is  the  same,  the  cylinder  ratio  would 
be  as  the  areas  of  the  two  pistons,  and  it  can 
readily  be  found  by  multiplying  the  diameter  of 
each  cylinder  by  itself  and  comparing  the  two 
products.  For  instance,  to  find  the  cylinder  ra- 
tio of  an  engine  with  a  20  inch  high  and  a  30 
inch  low-pressure  cylinder,  multiply  20x20  equals 
400;  30x30  equals  900;  400  goes  in  900  two  and 
one-fourth  times,  which  is  the  cylinder  ratio. 


346 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


The  early  practice  in  this  country  with  two- 
cylinder  compounds  gave  a  ratio  of  two  to  one 
or  even  less,  but  extended  experiment  has  dem- 
onstrated that  a  greater 
proportion  than  this  is 
advisable  and  many 
compounds  of  this  class 
have  a  low-pressure  cyl- 
inder from  tw^o  and  one- 
half  to  two  and  three- 
quarters  times  larger 
than  their  high-pressure 
cylinder.  The  Baldwin 
works  used  a  ratio  of  3 
to  1  in  their  Vauclain 
four  -cylinder  com- 
pounds for  both  passenger  and  freight  service  for 
a  number  of  years  and  consider  the  results  emi- 
nently satisfactory,  while 
the  builders  of  the  Brooks 
tandem  four  -cylinder 
compound  advise  a  ratio 
of  between  2.8  and  3  to  1. 
However,  the  whole  prob- 
lem of  cylinder  ratios  for 
compound  locomotives  is 
based  upon  the  desirabil- 
ity of  dividing  the  work  V yj 

as  equally  as  possible  be- 
the  high   and  the' 


-z^'V 


Fij^JJ. 


tween 

low-pressure  cylinders,  and 

without  going  into  details,  it  is  apparent  that  no 

given  ratio  will  keep  the  work  equally  divided 


CLASSES  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


347 


for  different  service  and  different  points  of  cut-off, 
nor  should  this  equal  division  of  power  between 
the  cylinders  be  given  anything  but  secondary 
consideration  in  comparison  with  the  total  econ- 
omy of  the  locomotive.  To  partially  equalize  the 
power  of  compounds,  the  amounts  of  lap  and  lead 
are  not  the  same  for  both  cylinders;  one  builder 
uses  a  separate  lever  in  the  cab  for  independ- 
ently adjusting  the  travel  of  the  low-pressure 
valve,  as  fully  described  elsewhere. 

There  seems  to  be  no  general  rule  followed  by 

builders  in  this  country 
as  to  which  cylinder  of 
a  two-c  y  1  i  n  d  e  r  com- 
pound should  be  placed 
on  the  right-hand  or 
engineer's  side  of  the 
engine.  Generally  the 
intercepting  valves  are 
located  on  the  engi- 
neer's side  to  make  their 
connections  as  simple  as 
possible,  and  hence,  ac- 
,  .  cording  as    the  design 

^      '  contemplates  the  plac- 

ing of  this  valve  adjacent  to  the  high  or  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  that  one  is  placed  on  the  right- 
hand  side.  But  even  this  rule  is  not  without 
exception.* 


*It  would  seem  as  though  the  intercepting  valve,  if  placed 
between  the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  the  receiver,  would  cause 
less  wire-drawing  of  steam  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  than  if 
located  between  the  latter  and  the  receiver. 


348         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

Some  compounds  have  cylinder  casings  both  of 
the  same  size,  but  with  the  advent  of  the  thirty- 
four  or  thirty-five  inch  low-pressure  cylinder  it 
seemed  to  many  advisable  to  place  it  on  the 
engineer's  side  with  the  thought  of  its  better  pro- 
tection from  damage  if  within  his  vision,  and,  fur- 
thermore, that  the  high-pressure  cylinder  casing 
be  made  no  larger  than  necessary  for  reason  of 
its  better  protection  from  accident. 

It  is  becoming  the  general  practice  on  com- 
pounds of  any  size  to  place  combination  safety  and 
relief  valves  on  the  receiver  and  the  low-pressure 
chest  and  cylinder  heads  to  avoid  damage  in  case 
of  broken  reducing  valve  or  other  accident  that 
might  produce  unsafe  pressure  on  that  side. 

THE  BALDWIN  FOUR-CYLINDER  COMPOUND. 

The  builders  of  the  "Vauclain"  four-cylinder 
compound  locomotives  claim  a  design  productive 
of  the  greatest  efficiency  with  the  utmost  sim- 
plicity of  parts  and  the  least  possible  deviation 
from  existing  practice;  that  they  also  develop 
equal  power  on  each  side  of  the  locomotive, 
thereby  preventing  the  racking  of  the  machinery 
resulting  from  an  unequal  distribution  of  power; 
and  that,  in  their  method  of  handling  by  the 
engineer,  there  is  but  slight  departure  from  that 
of  single-expansion  or  non-compound  locomo- 
tives. They  may  be  started,  and  run  for  any  de- 
sired length  of  time,  either  simple  or  compound, 
at  the  will  of  the  engineer,  and  can  be  changed 
from  the  one  to  the  other  at  his  discretion  by  the 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


349 


movement  of  a  small  lever  in  the  cab  which  also 
operates  the  cylinder  cocks. 

The  principal  features  of  construction  are  as 
follows: 

The  cylinders  consist  of  one  high-pressure  and 
one  low-pressure  cylinder  for  each  side,  the  ratio 
of  their  volumes  being  as  nearly  3  to  1  as  the 
employment  of  convenient  measurements  will 
allow.  They  are  cast  in  one  piece  with  the  cylin- 
drical valve  chamber  and  the  saddle,  the  cylin- 


l4Uc/i  CAa/ni*r 


^aidirirt  ^u>'  -  C^i^cn^er  drnjoeunel ■ 


ders  being  placed  one  directly  above  the  other 
and  as  close  together  as  they  can  be  with  ade- 
quate walls  between  them.  Figs.  13  and  14 
show  the  proximity  of  the  two  cylinders,  while 
in  Fig.  15,  which  shows  the  arrangement  of  the 
cylinders  in  relation  to  the  valve,  the  actual  con- 
struction is  distorted  for  illustrative  purposes. 

The  valve  used  to  distribute  the  steam  to  the 
cylinders  is  of  the  piston  type,  working  in  a  cyl- 
indrical steam   chest  located   in   the   saddle   of 


350 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


the  cylinder  casting  as  close  to  the  cylinders  as 
possible  and  between  them  and  the  smoke-box, 
as  shown  in  the  figures.  This  chest,  having 
steam  passages  cast  larger  than  required,  is 
bored  out  enough  larger  than  the  diameter  of 
the  piston  valve  to  permit  the  use  of  a  hard  cast 
iron  bushing.  Fig.  22  shows  this  bushing  and 
one  method  of  forcing  it  into  place  so  that  steam 
tight  joints   will  be  had  between  all  ports;  it 


l/a/ie  CAa^nSer 


also  shows  the  narrow  bridges  across  the  steam 
ports  which  prevent  the  eight  packing  rings  of 
the  valve  (shown  in  Fig.  16)  from  entering  the 
ports.  These  cast  iron  packing  rings  form  the 
edges  of  the  valve. 

The  valve  is  of  the  piston  type — double,  and 
hollow  between  the  two  inside  pistons — but  hav- 
ing two  solid  ends,  as  shown  by  Fig.  16,  and 
controls  the  admission  and  exhaust  of  both  cylin- 
ders.    The  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       351 


cylinder  becomes  the  supply  steam  for  tTie  low- 
pressure  cylinder  and  is  transmitted   from  one 
side  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  the  opposite 
Tz^.    IS. 


side  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  through  the  hol- 
low portion  of  the  valve,  as  indicated  by  arrows, 
Fig.  15.     The  supply  steam  for  the  high-pressure 


352 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


cylinder  enters  the  steam  chest  at  both  ends, 
thus  balancing  the  valve  with  the  exception  of 
the  area  of  the  valve-stem  at  the  back  end. 

The  more  common  slide  valve  action  being  so 
much  better  understood  by  the  average  railroad 
man  than  the  piston  valve,  I  will  liken  this  four- 
piston  valve  to  one  slide  valve  within  another 
having  external  admission  and  internal  exhaust  in 
both  cases.     Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  outside 


Tiy  J6. 


edges  of  the  two  outer  pistons  govern  admission 
and  their  inside  edges  the  exhaust  of  high-pres- 
sure cylinder,  while  the  two  inner  pistons  simi- 
larly regulate  the  flow  of  steam  to  and  from  the 
low-pressure  cylinder,  all  of  w^hich  will  be  evident 
by  a  reference  to  the  arrows  in  Fig.  15. 

Where  the  front  rails  of  the  frame  are  single 
bars,  the  high-pressure  cylinder  is  usually  put  on 
top,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13,  and  in  that  event,  with 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTI  YES.        353 

the  usual  rocker-arm,  indirect  valve  motion  is 
used.*  When  the  low-pressure  cylinder  is  put 
above  (Fig.  14)  on  account  of  the  double  front 
rails  of  the  frame,  they  also  prevent  the  use  of 
the  rocker-shaft  and  box  and  the  valve  motion  is 
then  termed  direct-acting,  which  necessitates  a 
different  location  of  the  eccentrics  on  the  axle.* 

Engineers  and  those  employed  in  shops  and 
round-houses  for  setting  valves  and  eccentrics 
should  thoroughly  understand  the  difference  be- 
tween the  position  of  the  eccentrics  with  relation 

eOtZK 


BcU^,n  /our  Cv^-n^r  Cor^poun^  ^o/ion  Sfee/ J',^(o,z 

Croa  -aaaa 

to  the  crank-pins  for  direct  and  indirect  valve 
motion,  as  given  fully  elsewhere  in  the  Manual, 
and  further  brought  out  in  the  Catechism  on 
Accidents  to  Baldwin  Four-Cylinder  Compounds 
hereinafter  contained. 

The  style  of  crosshead  is  show^n  in  Fig.  17. 
It  is  made  of  cast  steel,  to  insure  the  greatest 
strength  with  a  minimum  weight,  the  wearing 
surface  being  lined  with  tin.     The  piston,  shown 

*Direct  and  indirect  valve  motion  will  be  found  fu'ily  illus- 
trated and  explained  in  the  earlier  chapters  of  the  Manual. 


354 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


in  Fig.  18,  is  also  preferably  made  with  cast 
steel  heads,  the  object  in  both  cases  being  to  re- 
duce the  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts  to  a 
minimum. 

It  is  obvious,  that,  in  starting  these  locomotives 
from  a  state  of  rest  with  heavy  trains,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  obtain  a  greater  power  than  that  exerted 
by  the  high-pressure  piston  alone,  for  there  would 


be  no  pressure  on  the  low-pressure  piston  until 
the  high-pressure  cylinder  had  made  one  exhaust; 
hence  it  is  necessary  to  admijb  steam  to  the  low- 
pressure  as  well  as  the  high-pressure  cylinders. 
This  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the  starting 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       355 

valve  (Fig.  19).*  This  is  simply  a  plug-cock 
which  is  opened  by  the  engineer  by  means  of 
suitable  levers  from  the  cab,  to  admit  steam  from 
one  end  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  the  other, 
and  thence,  as  if  it  were  the  ordinary  high-pres- 
sure exhaust,  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  This 
same  valve  acts  as  a  cylinder  cock  for  both  ends 
of  the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  is  operated  by 
the  same  lever  that  actuates  the  ordinary  cylin- 
der cocks,  which  are  in  this  case  on  the  low-pressure 
cylinder,  thus  making,  probably,  the  most  simple 
starting  device  used  on  any  compound  locomotive 
and  one  not  easily  deranged.  The  operation  of 
the  starting  valve  in  conjunction  with  the  cylin- 
der cocks  is  clearly  shown  in  Fig.  20.  The 
starting  valve  should  be  kept  closed  (position  iV) 
as  much  as  possible,  as  its  indiscriminate  use 
reduces  the  economy  and  makes  the  locomotive 
"iogy."t 

Air  valves,  to  prevent  a  vacuum,  are  placed  in 
the  steam  passages  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder, 


*This  is  sometimes  called  the  "By-Pass"  valve,  as  it  connects 
the  two  sides  of  the  high-pressure  piston,  but  for  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent purpose  than  that  to  which  the  by-pass  valves  are  put  in 
connection  with  the  lovv-pi-essure  cylinder  as  described  herein- 
after under  the  Richmond  and  the  Rogers  compound,  and  for  that 
reason  I  have  not  called  it  a  "by-pass"  valve.  Two  earlier 
forms  of  starting  valves  have  been  used  with  Vauclain  com- 
pounds, but,  Inasmuch  as  they  have  been  superseded  by  this  form 
of  valve,  it  I3  not  deemed  necessary  to  illustrate  and  dwcribe 
them  herttin. 

fAn  engine  which  sliould  be  capable  of  high  speed  but  is  not, 
and  in  which  the  i)ressures  work  against  themselves  in  the  cyl- 
inders, is  said  to  be  "logj'." 


356^         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

a  practice  now  generally  followed  on  all  locomo- 
tives, either  simple  or  compound.  Additional  air 
valves,  marked  C  and  C '  in  Fig.  20,  are  placed 
in  connection  with  the  ports  in  the  valve  cham- 
ber leading  to  the  low-pressure  cylinders.  Air 
valves  of  somewhat  different  shape  have  been 
described  and  shown  in  detail  heretofore  in  the 
Manual. 

Water  relief  valves  W  W,  Figs.  20  and  21, 
which  are  nothing  more  nor  less  than  pop  valves, 
are  applied  to  the  low-pressure  cylinders  and  at- 
tached to  the  front  and  back  cylinder  heads  to  re- 
lieve excessive  pressure  of  any  kind,  steam  or 
water.  The  spring  in  the  water  relief  valves  on 
these  engines  is  made  to  carry  a  pressure  enough 
greater  than  the  boiler  pressure  to  prevent  their 
discharging  steam  and  water  oi'dinarily  in  start- 
ing the  engine  simple. 

In  all  other  respects  the  locomotive  is  the  same 
as  the  ordinary  single  expansion  locomotive. 

Operafion  of  the  Baldwin  Four-Cylinder  Com- 
pound.— When  starting  the  locomotive,  the  engi- 
neer should,  ordinarily,  pull  the  cylinder  cock 
lever  way  back  and  thus  open  the  cylinder  cocks 
in  order  to  relieve  the  cylinders  of  condensation, 
and,  arf  the  starting  valve  is  opened  by  the  same 
movement,  steam  is  thus  admitted  to  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder  and  the  locomotive  started 
quickly  and  freely. 

In  case  the  locomotive  is  at  a  platform  of  a 
crowded  station,  or  in  any  other  place  where  it  is 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOl  I  \  'Eti.        357 

undesirable  to  open  the  cylinder  cocks,  the  en- 
gineer should  move  the  starting  lever  in  the 
opposite  direction  from   that   usually  given  it, 

Fig.  20. 


C^i^t^ier  Coc/fs . 

placing  the  starting  valve  handle  in  position  J, 
Figs.  19  and  20;  that  is,  he  should  push  forward 
the  lever  in  the  cab,  thus  allowing  steam  to  pass 


358 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


through  the  starting  valve  without  opening  either 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  cocks  or  the  drip  C  of 
the  starting  valves.  By  further  reference  to  Fig. 
19,  it  will  be  seen  how,  when  the  handle  is  in  po- 
sition K,  ports  A,  i?,  and  drip  C  are  all  connected 
by  the  ports  a,  h,  and  c  of  the  plug;  but  if  the  handle 
is  in  the  opposite  position  J,  ports  J.  and  B  only 
are  connected,  as  h  is  now  at  a  and  c  is  opposite 
J5;  in  its  central  position  N  (normal  position  for 
compound  working),  it  will  be  seen  that  all  ports 
are  closed  as  in  the  figure. 


Saidn-in  ^ur-C^/eMHtr  Compound. 

After  a  few  revolutions  have  been  made  and 
the  cylinders  are  free  from  water  caused  by  con- 
densation or  priming,  the  engineer  should  move 
the  cylinder  cock  lever  into  the  central  position,  'N, 
causing  the  engine  to  work  compound  entirely. 
This  should  be  done  before  the  reverse  lever  is 
disturbed  from  its  full  gear  position. 

Ordinarily,  the  reverse  lever  should  not  be 
''hooked  up,"  thereby   shortening  the  travel  of 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


359 


the  valve,  until  after  the  cylinder  cock  lever  has 
been  placed  in  its  central  position,  but  it  is  often 
necessary  to  open  the  cylinder  cocks  when  at 
full  speed  to  allow  water  caused  by  priming  or 
foaming  to  escape  from  the  cylinders,  and  in  such 
cases  no  disadvantage  is  experienced,  and  the 
reverse  lever  need  not  be  disturbed. 

The  starting  device  is  simply  designed  for 
use  in  the  starting  of  the  train  and  should  not  be 
used  at  any  other  time  unless  there  is  imminent 
danger  of  stalling  and  the  lever  has  been  previ- 
ously  dropped  to  full   gear.     In  other  respects, 


J^?>   22. 


aside  from  these  here  noted,  the  rules  governing 
the  operation  of  compound  locomotives  in  gen- 
eral should  be  clearly  understood  by  any  engineer 
who  is  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  run  a  compound 
locomotive  of  this  or  other  design. 

REPAIRS, 

The   builders   of    the   Yauclain   four-cylinder 
compound   claim   an    advantage  in  it  over  the 


360         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

two-cylinder  or  "  cross-compound  "  locomotive 
in  simplicity  of  parts,  there  being  no  intercept- 
ing valve,*  and  a  similarity  to  all  the  parts  of  a 
single-expansion  locomotive.  Thus  its  repairs 
will  be  similar  to  those  of  simple  locomotives. 
To  carry  out  this  simplicity  of  parts,  the  piston 
rods  of  the  high  and  low-pressure  cylinders  are 
of  the  same  diameter  and  designed  strong  enough 
to  withstand  the  severest  strains  of  service. 

The  packing  rings  in  the  valves  are  easily 
replaced  and  the  valve  chest  bushing  can  be 
cheaply  and  easily  renewed.  In  extracting  old 
bushings  it  is  best  to  split  them  between  the 
ports  with  a  narrow  chisel.  The  new  bushings 
can  be  pressed  in  by  some  such  handy  device  as 
that  shown  in  Fig.  22. 

Accidents  to  Baldwin  Four-Cylinder  {^'Vauclain^^) 
Compounds. — For  all  ordinary  accidents,  such  as 
broken  main  rod  or  pin,  or  a  broken  valve  stem, 
what  should  be  done?  The  same  as  for  non- 
compound  or  simple  locomotives,  as  described 
fully  in  the  earlier  chapters  of  the  Manual. 

With  a  low-pressure  cylinder  head  knocked 
out,,  would  it  be  necessary  to  disconnect  that 
side  ?     Not  for  a  short  distance. 

In  that  event,  how  many  exhausts  would  there 
be  during  one  revolution  ?     There  would  be  three 


*The  intercepting  valve  is  the  valve  which  prevents  the  live 
steam  which  is  admitted  from  the  boiler  to  the  low-pressure  cyl- 
inder at  certain  times,  from  passing  through  the  receiver  to  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  where  it  would  produce  back  pi'essure  od 
the  piston. 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.        361 

in  the  stack  and  one  through  the  open  cylinder 
head  and  the  latter  exhaust  might  obstruct  the 
■engineer's  view,  if  on  his  side,  and  render  the 
procedure  inadvisable. 

With  the  Vauclain  Compound,  at  what  posi- 
tion of  the  reverse  lever  is  work  of  the  two 
cylinders  most  nearly  equalized  ?  At  a  cut-off 
of  about  one-half  the  stroke  in  the  high-pressure 
cylinder. 

When  is  the  work  most  unequal  and  the 
strains  on  the  crosshead  consequently  the  great- 
est ?  In  starting  with  the  engine  working  sim- 
ple, as  then  the  high-pressure  piston  is  nearly 
balanced  by  live  steam  on  both  sides  and  the 
low-pressure  cylinder  obtains  approximately  boiler 
pressure. 

What  results  would  be  likely  should  the  rig- 
ging of  the  cylinder  cocks  and  starting  valve 
become  bent  or  disconnected  ?  Should  one  start- 
ing valve  fail  to  properly  close,  the  exhausts 
would  be  of  unequal  intensity.  If  one  of  them 
failed  to  open  when  required  in  starting,  the 
engine  would  be  weak  on  that  side  as  it  would 
have  to  start  compound,  that  is  with  steam  for  the 
first  stroke  in  the  small  high-pressure  cylinder 
only. 

In  this  latter  event,  when  would  the  first 
exhaust  from  that  side  take  place  ?  Not  until 
the  completion  of  the  return  stroke. 

If  the  cylinder  cocks  open  and  close  with  the 
same  rigging  as  the  by-pass  valve,  why  would  not 
the  engineer  know  thereby  that  the  by-pass  valve 
was   in   position   desired  ?     From   the   previous 


362  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

description  of  this  rigging,  shown  in  Figs.  19 
and  20,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  cab 
lever  pushed  clear  ahead  opens  the  by-pass  valve, 
but  not  its  drip  nor  the  cylinder  cocks. 

Before  altering  the  valve  motion,  what  else 
should  be  examined  if  the  exhausts  were  of  un- 
equal intensity  ?  Examine  for  broken  packing 
rings  in  the  piston  valve  or  the  low-pressure 
cylinder.* 

In  case  a  valve-stem  broke  off  inside  the  chest 
or  the  valve  itself  broke,  would  it  be  certain  of 
discovery  at  once,  as  with  an  ordinary  slide  valve? 
Possibly  it  would  not.  Instances  have  been  cited 
where  compound  locomotives  of  this  system  have 
hauled  passenger  trains  long  distances  with  bro- 
ken valve-stems  and  broken  valves.  The  two 
ends  of  the  valve  being  unbalanced  by  the  area 
of  the  valve-stem  (see  Figs.  15  and  16)  accounts 
for  the  first  possibility,  while  live  steam  from  the 
induction  ports  acting  on  each  end  of  the  valve 
would  explain  the  case  of  an  undetected  broken 
valve. 

How  can  it  be  found  if  the  cylinder  packing 
in  the  high-pressure  cylinder  is  blowing?  Put 
the  engine  on  the  quarter,  block  the  wheels,  and 
test  as  usual  for  leaky  slide  valve;  then,  with  the 
starting  valve  closed  (in  compound  position)  and 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  cocks  blocked  open, 

*A  case  is  cited  by  the  builders  where  an  engineer  ran  his 
locomotive  two  days  without  any  piston  head  at  all  in  one  of  the 
high-pressure  cylinders,  and  even  then  could  not  tell  what  was 
the  matter  except  that  the  intensity  of  the  exhausts  were  unequal 
and  the  engine  did  not  make  good  time.  Machinists  put  to  work 
to  locate  the  trouble,  found  it  to  the  great  surprise  of  the  engineer. 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


363 


drop  the  reverse  lever  into  full  gear.  Steam 
passing  the  high-pressure  piston  will  appear  at 
the  open  cylinder  cock  of  the  low-pressure  cyl- 
inder, but  at  the  opposite  end  that  would  be 
expected  with  a  simple  engine. 

How  can  it  be  found  if  the  packing  in  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder  is  blowing  ?  Put  the  engine 
on  the  quarter  and  open  the  starting  valve  and 
cylinder  cocks  and  look  for  any  escape  of  steam 
from  the  low-pressure  cylinder  cock  on  the  end 
that  should  be  in  exhaust,  as  with  a  simple  engine. 


ly.  23. 

With  the  four-cylinder  type,  where  the  large 
low-pressure  cylinder  is  placed  on  top,  as  in  Fig. 
14,  and  direct  valve  motion  is  employed,  how 
should  the  eccentric  rods  on  one  side  stand  with 
the  same  side  of  the  engine  on  the  forward  cen- 
ter ?  They  should  be  crossed,  as  shown  in  skel- 
eton Fig.  23.  A  slipped  eccentric  should  be 
set  the  same  as  for  similar  valve  motion  on  a 
simple  engine,  as  fully  described  heretofore  in  the 
Manual  under  "Third  Examination  of  Firemen." 

14  Tol  12 


364 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


THE    BALDWIN    TW0-0YLIND;ER    COMPOUND. 

The  original  Baldwin  two-cylinder  compound, 
built  in  the  year  1892,  was  of  the  cross-compound 
receiver  type  and,  after  the  first  stroke  or  two. 


or  as  soon  as  the  receiver  had  attained  a  pressure 
of  100  lbs.,  the  engine  automatically  changed  to 
compound  and  could  not  be  operated  otherwise. 
It  belonged,  therefore,  to  the  automatic  class  of 
compounds.     The  reducing  and  the  starting  valve 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       365 

then  employed  were  changed  materially  in  the 
later  design  of  the  two-cylinder  compound  here- 
with illustrated  and  described. 

Their  later  two-cylinder  compound  locom'o- 
tives  belong  to  the  class  of  convertible  com- 
pounds, as  they  can  be  operated  either  simple  or 
compound  for  any  length  of  time  by  the  move- 
ment of  a  small  valve  in  the  cab,  as  shown  by 
Fig.  28. 

Fig.  24  shows  a  front  view,  giving  the  gen- 
eral arrangement  of  cylinders,  steam,  exhaust  and 
receiver  pipes  in  the  front  end,  and  the  location 
of  the  intercepting  and  reducing  valve  in  the 
saddle  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder.  The  low- 
pressure  cylmder  derives  all  its  pressure  from  the 
receiver  when  running  compound,  as  is  usual  in 
two-cylinder  compounds. 

The  office  of  the  intercepting  valve  is  two-fold. 
It  acts  as  an  intercepting  valve  by  opening  and 
closing  communication  between  the  two  cylin- 
ders, and  also  as  a  separate  exhaust  valve,  by  con- 
necting the  low-pressure  cylinder  with  the  exhaust 
to  the  stack.  This  it  does  by  diverting  the  ex- 
haust from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  either  into 
the  atmosphere,  when  working  single-expansion, 
or  into  the  receiver,  when  working  compound, 
and  is  operated  at  the  will  of  the  engineer. 

The  office  of  the  reducing  valve  is  to  admit 
live  steam  at  a  reduced  pressure  into  the  receiver 
and  thence  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  when 
the  engine  is  working  single-expansion,  and  also 
to  close  simultaneously  with  the  changing  of  the 
intercepting  valve  to  the  position  which  causes 


366 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


the  engine  to  work  compound,  so  that  the  receiver 
will  obtain  no  live  steam  from  boiler  when  taking 
the  exhaust  from  high-pressure  cylinder.  The 
performance  of  the  first  above-mentioned  func- 
tion— that  of  reducing  the  pressure  of  live  steam 
delivered  to  the  receiver — is  necessary  in  order 


JiteliiecTter 


\tbCai 


JSWge^e  ^e>rif^7^c  >5i/n»Ze 

that  the  total  pressure  on  the  large  low-pressure 
piston  shall  not  be  greater  than  that  on  the  high- 
pressure  piston,  and  thus  the  low-pressure  side 
kept  from  jerking  the  train  and  producing  unequal 
strains  on  the  two  sides  of  the  locomotive  when 
working  as  a  simple  engine. 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


367 


Operation  of  the  intercepting  and  reduction 
valves. —  In  Figs.  25  and  26  the  intercepting 
valve  is  marked  A  and  the  reducing  valve  C. 
It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  both  cylindrical  in 


Tipelo  OpmHa^ 
lidvf  in  Cab 


J^^-  £6 


form,  are  placed  in  bushings  having  suitable  ports, 
and  that  coil  springs  hold  them  in  their  normal 
positions  when  no  pressure  is  acting  against  them 
to  overcome  these  springs. 


368  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

In  the  cab  of  the  locomotive  is  placed  an  oper- 
ating valve,  shown  in  Figs.  27  and  28,  having 
two  positions,  marked  "simple"  and  "compound," 
Through  this  operating  valve  a  pressure  of  air  or 
live  steam  is  admitted  to  one  side  of  the  reducing 
and  the  intercepting  valves  through  two  pipes 
marked  DD,  and,  acting  against  the  right  end  of 
valve  A  and  against  the  left  end  of  valve  C,  moves 
both  from  their  normal  positions  shown  in  Fig. 
25  to  those  of  Fig.  26. 

The  reducing  valve  6',  when  it  is  not  closed 
permanently  by  live  steam  from  the  operating 
pipe  D,  is  automatically  closed  when  the  pressure 
in  the  receiver  R  is  great  enough  to  produce  as 
much  power  in  the  large  low-pressure  cylinder  as 
is  obtained  in  the  smaller  high-pressure-cylinder. 
For  this  purpose  steam  from  the  receiver  R  can 
pass  through  a  port  E,  raising  the  poppet  valve  F 
(which  remains  open  as  long  as  the  engine  is  not 
working  compound)  and  bears  upon  the  larger 
end  of  the  reducing  valve  C,  causing  it  to  move  to 
the  right  and  close  the  live  steam  passage  H 
(shown  in  Fig.  25)  leading  to  the  receiver  i?, 
whenever  the  receiver  pressure  becomes  excessive. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  when  the  engine  is  work- 
ing simple  there  must  be  a  close  balance  between 
the  left-hand  larger  end  of  the  reducing  valve, 
being  acted  upon  by  receiver  pressure,  and  the 
right-hand  smaller  end  of  the  reducing  valve, 
being  acted  upon  by  live  steam  from  the  main 
steam  pipe  »S'.  In  this  way  is  the  receiver  pressure 
kept  as  much  lower  than  the  boiler  pressure  as 
the  large  end  of  the  reducing  valve  is  greater  than 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTI VE8.        369 


rcy  27. 


the  small  end.  This  proportion  is  relative  to  the 
respective  sizes  of  the  high  and  the  low-pressure 
cylinders  and  hence  equal  cylinder  power  will  be 
given  both  sides  of  the  engine  in  working  simple. 
When  the  engine  is  standing,  the  lever  of  the 
small  operating  valve,  Figs.  27  and  28,  in  the 
cab  should  be  placed  at  position  marked  "simple," 
and  the  valves  are  then  in  position  for  the  engine 
to  work  as  a  single-expansion  locomotive,  as  the 
steam  pressure  is  relieved 
through  this  cab  valve  from 
the  large  end  of  the  reducing 
valve  and  the  right-hand  end 
of  the  intercepting  valve,  al- 
lowing these  valves  to  as- 
sume (by  the  action  of  their 
springs) their  respective  posi- 
itions  shown  in  Fig.  25.  The 
arrows  in  this  figure  illus- 
trate clearly  how  the  steam 
can  pass  from  the  high-pres- 
sure exhaust  through  the 
ope^>^zQi^  intercepting  valve  A  to  the 

£a/cf^,-^r^cy&,,a>rcc^c;w:me  independent  exhaust  B  lead- 
ing to  the  stack  (see  dotted  lines  and  arrows).  At 
the  same  time  the  passage  of  live  steam  to  the  re- 
ceiver— from  which  the  low-pressure  cylinder 
receives  its  supply — takes  place  through  ports  H, 
as  shown  by  other  arrows.  The  receiver  pressure 
is  governed  by  the  automatic  action  of  the  reduc- 
ing valve,  as  previously  explained. 

Thus  the  engine  can  be  used  as  a  single-expan- 
sion locomotive  in  making  up  and  starting  trains. 


370         EKGII^EEIiS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

and  then,  at  the  will  of  the  engineer,  the  operat- 
ing valve,  Figs.  27  and  28,  in  the  cab  can  be 
moved  to  the  position  marked  "compound."  This 
will  admit  live  steam  through  the  two  supply 
pipes  D,  thence  to  the  cylinders  marked  IF  and 
C",  Fig.  26,  changing  the  intercepting  and  the 
reducing  valves  quickly,  and,  as  the  ports  are 
small,  noiselessly,  to  the  position  shown  in  the 
latter  figure.  With  the  intercepting  valve  in  this 
position  it  will  be  seen  that  the  independent  ex- 
haust B  is  closed  and  steam  from  the  high-pressure 
exhaust  must  follow  the  course  of  the  arrows  to 
the  receiver,  passing  around  the  small  reduc- 
ing valve  bushing  and  its  valve  C  which  is  kept 
closed  by  the  live  steam  from  pipe  D. 

At  any  time  the  engineer  may  desire  to  in- 
crease the  power  of  the  engine  as,  for  instance, 
when  in  danger  of  stalling,  by  moving  the  lever 
of  the  operating  valve  in  the  cab  to  position 
marked  "simple"  the  engine  is  again  changed 
at  once  to  a  single-expansion  locomotive. 

Accidents  to  Baldwin  Two-Cylinder  Compounds. 
— With  one  side  disabled,  what  should  be  done  in 
order  to  safely  run  the  engine  in  ?  Disconnect 
the  disabled  side,  as  advised  for  simple  engines, 
place  the  intercepting  valve  in  position  for  work- 
ing simple  so  as  to  open  the  separate  exhaust 
port,  and  run  in  with  one  side. 

Should  the  small  pipes  DD  leading  to  the  reduc- 
ing valve  C  and  the  intercepting  valve  piston  be 
broken  off,  how  could  the  engine  be  worked  ? 
With  single-expansion  only,  unless  the  back  head 
of  the  separate  exhaust  chamber  TFwere  removed 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.        371 

and  the  piston  blocked  in  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  26;  then  the  engine  would  become  an  auto- 
matic compound,  that  is,  would  start  simple  but 
automatically  go  to  compound  after  a  revolution 
or  so. 

What  would  it  be  advisable  to  do  in  case  of  a 
broken  reducing  valve?  Use  very  light  throttle  at 
slow  speeds,  or  run  with  a  reduced  boiler  pressure. 

Should  the  small  valves  F  and  G  be  frequently 
inspected  and  cleaned?  Yes.  These  valves  and  the 
reducing  and  the  intercepting  v^alves  become 
gummed  by  the  injudicious  use  of  cylinder  oil  on 
the  low-pressure  side. 

THE    SCHENECTADY    COMPOUND. 

Locomotives  built  by  the  Schenectady  Loco- 
motive Works  are  oftentimes  styled  by  the  older 
railway  men  as  "  McQueen "  engines,  although 
the  name  of  the  builders  has  been  as  at  present 
for  many  years. 

These  builders  have  constructed  many  com- 
pound locomotives,  and,  including  the  original 
valve  design,  have  employed  three  styles  of  com- 
pound mechanisms,  but  all  engines  built  have 
been  of  the  two-cylinder  variety  of  compounds. 

Original  Schenectady  Type. — The  original  design 
by  their  then  superintendent,  Mr.  A.  J.  Pitkin, 
consisted  of  an  intercepting  valve  and  a  reducing 
valve.  The  stem  of  the  intercepting  valve  was 
connected  by  levers  to  an  index  in  the  cab,  which 
showed  its  position  to  the  engineer.  These  engines 
belonged  to  the  class  of  automatic  compounds. 


372  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIRE  MEN' 8  MANUAL. 

In  starting  the  engine,  a  small  pipe  from  the 
boiler  through  a  reducing  valve  supplied  steam 
to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  at  a  reduced  pressure. 
When  the  receiver  had  accumulated  sufficient 
pressure  by  the  exhaust  into  it  from  the  high- 
pressure  'Cylinder,  the  intercepting  valve  would 
automatically  be  thrown  to  its  normal  position 
for  working  compound;  then  the  supply  of  live 
steam  to  the  low-pressure  cylindei^  was  cut  off 
'ind  the  receiver  pressure  admitted,  and  thus  the 
ingine  worked  compound. 

The  following  modification  of  this  valve  ar- 
i-angement  was  afterwards  made  by  Mr.  Pitkin 
and  applied  to  many  locomotives  by  the  Schenec- 
tady Locomotive  Works. 

Design  of  1S92. — With  this  construction  of 
1892,  the  opening  of  the  throttle  admits  live 
steam  at  the  same  time  to  both  the  high  and 
the  low-pressure  cylinders,  closes  the  intercepting 
valve  and  allows  the  engine  to  start  with  its 
full  power  as  a  simple  engine.  After  a  few 
strokes  the  receiver  pressure  automatically  opens 
the  intercepting  valve  and  cuts  off  the  passage 
of  live  steam  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  and 
the  engine  works  compound.  The  special  valves 
are  located  in  and  behind  the  saddle  on  the  low- 
pressure  side  and  are  operated  automatically  and 
beyond  the  will  of  the  engineer.  Fig.  29  shows 
the  general  appearance  of  that  portion  of  the 
intercepting  valve  projecting  back  of  the  saddle; 
Figs.  30  and  31  show  the  valves  and  pistons 
removed  from  their  encasing  chambers.  Upon 
opening  the  throttle,  a  small  connection  from  the 


p 


OPERATION    OF    COMPOUND    LOCOMOTIVES.        373 

steam  pipe  admits  live  steam  through  suitable 
valves  to  an  actuating  piston,  the  movement  of 
which  opens  a  poppet  .valve,  supplying  live 
steam  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  and  also  places 
the  intercepting  valve  so  as  to  close  connection 
between  the  receiver  and  the  low-pressure  steam 


THE  INTERCEPTING  VALVE. 
jSTCHENECTADy -OeS/GW  OF  1892 


Fia.ai.      4f;>deKav& 


I 


L 


chest.  Thus  the  low-pressure  cylinder  exhausts 
to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
into  a  closed  receiver.  Sufficient  pressure  will 
accumulate  in  the  receiver  after  a  few  strokes  to 
move  the  small  valves,  thereby  moving  the  actua- 
ting piston  and  with  it  the  intercepting  valve  to 


374 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


such  position  as  will  close  off  live  steam  to  the 
low-pressure  cylinder,  and  instead  admit  the 
receiver  pressure,  thus  working  the  engine  com- 
pound. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  interested  in  the  de- 
tails of  this  device,  a  more  thorough  description 
of  the  accompanying  figures  follows: 


The  front  view,  Fig.  32,  shows  the  general 
arrangement  of  cylinders,  steam  passages,  and 
the  intercepting  valve.     Figs.  33  and  34   both 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       375 

show  the  same  horizontal  section  through  the 
saddles  and  show  the  intercepting  valve  and  the 
actuating  valves,  Fig.  33  showing  them  in  posi- 
tion for  working  compound,  and  Fig.  34  for 
starting.  Fig.  35  gives  a  vertical  section,  better 
showing  the  passages  between  the  receiver  and 
the  low-pressure  steam  chest,  which  passages  are 
opened  and  closed  by  the  double  pistons  GG 
which  form  the  intercepting  valve.  Of  the  remain- 
ing figures,  36  and  37  show  details  of  the  regu- 
lating valve,  and  Fig.  38  an  end  view  of  the 
intercepting  pistons  GG.  The  arrows  in  Figs. 
33  and  34  indicate  the  direction  of  the  steam 
in  passing  through  the  apparatus. 

Fig.  32  shows  a  smoke-box  mounted  on  sad- 
dles connected  with  the  high  and  low-pressure 
cylinders  located  on  opposite  sides  of  the  engine 
and  having  the  necessary  admission  and  exhaust 
ports.  The  exhaust  port  of  the  high-pressure 
cylinder  is  connected  by  a  passage  E  (see  dotted 
lines  in  Fig.  32  and  full  section  of  port  in  Figs. 
33  and  34)  with  the  receiver  at  B,  Fig.  32. 
The  other  end  of  the  receiver  connects  with  the 
inlet  passage  R^  (shown  also  in  Fig.  35)  leading 
to  the  low-pressure  steam  chest,  and  in  this 
passage  the  intercepting  valve  6^6^  is  located  and 
travels  across  it  to  open  or  close  this  passage. 

The  intercepting  valve  and  the  mechanism  for 
operating  it  are  mounted  on  the  saddle  of  low- 
pressure  cylinder,  as  before  stated,  while  the  live 
steam  pipe  S  and  the  high-pressure  exhaust  pas- 
sage E  are  situated  in  the  high-pressure  saddle. 
The  low-pressure  exhaust  passage  E^  is  formed 


376 


KNOINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


by  the  two  saddles  being   bolted  together,  see 
Figs.  33  and  34. 

The  intercepting  valve  consists  of  two  pistons 
GG  (having  several  small  holes  g  through  them 
in  order  to  balance  them,  see  Figs.  35  and  38) 
mounted  at  one  end  of  a  long  piston  rod,  which 


J^i^'  31 


moves  to  and  fro  in  a  cylinder  having  four  open- 
ings. The  two  large  openings  shown  lead  from 
the  receiver  to  the  low-pressure  steam  chest  (see 
Fig.  35)  and  are  closed  by  the  two  intercepting 
pistons  GG  when  the  engine  is  to  be  started,  so 
that   live   steam    may   be  admitted  to  the  low- 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


377 


pressure  cylinder  without  producing  a  back 
pressure  in  the  high-pressure  cylinder  through 
the  receiver.  Of  the  two  remaining  openings  in 
the  valve  cylinder,  port  D  leads  to  the  low-pressure 
steam-chest  and  port  F  admits  steam  from  the 
boiler  when  the  apparatus  stands  in  position  as 
shown  in  Fig.  34o 


JFijy.  34. 


The  back  end  of  the  intercepting  piston-rod 
passes  through  suitable  stuffing  boxes  to  a  small 
cylinder  provided  with  a  piston  II,  which  actuates 
the  intercepting  valve.  This  cylinder  has  a  small 
steam  ches£  slide  valve  and  admission  and  exhaust 


378 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


ports  SO  similar  to  those  of  an  ordinary  locomo- 
tive cylinder,  that  its  operation  will  be  made  plaic 
b}  referring  to  the  Figs.  33  and  34,  if  the  move- 
ments of   its   slide  valve   are  explained.      This 


J^zy.  33. 
fiult/e.  Open 


small  slide  valve,  Fig.  31,  is  moved  by  a  stem 
connecting  two  pistons,  K  and  IC,  of  unequal 
diameter  in  order  to  insure  *their  movement  in 
the  proper  direction  at  the  proper  time.  The 
actuation  of  these  pistons,  and  with  them  the  slide 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTI VES.        379 

valve,  will  be  made  clear  by  the  figures.  From 
Fig.  35  it  will  be  seen  that  a  small  pipe  R~  leads 
from  the  receiver  connection  R"^  to  this  valve 
mechanism,  and  from  Figs.  33  and  34,  that  a 
pipe  S^  comes  from  the  live  steam  passage  in  the 
saddle  and  has  a  small  port  leading  to  the  actu- 
ating valves  as  well  as  to  the  poppet  valve  N. 
These  live  steam  and  receiver  connections  come 
to  opposite  sides  of  a  small  piston  valve  M  (Fig. 
37),  which  is  called  the  "regulating  valve"  and 
travels  across  two  ports  leading  to  the  slide  valve 
beneath  it,  as  shown. 


The  remainder  of  this  mechanism  con^sts  of  a 
balanced  poppet  valve  X,  which,  when  o'pen,  ad- 
mits live  steam  from  pipe  S^  through  the  inter- 
cepting valve  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  in 
starting.  This  poppet  valve  jV  has  a  projecting 
stem  on  the  lower  side  and  is  opened  and  allowed 
to  close  by  a  rocker-arm  or  bell-crank  L,  its 
two  positions  being  shown  in  Figs.  33  and  34, 
respectively. 

The  operation  of  the  apparatus  is  as  follows: 
The  normal  position  of  the  parts  when  the  en- 
gine is  w^orking  compound  is  shown  in  Fig.  33, 
in  which  position  steam    for    the    low-pressure 

10  vol  IS 


380         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

cylinder  comes  entirely  from  the  high-pressure 
exhaust  through  the  receiver.  To  start  the  train, 
the  engine  throttle  is  opened  as  usual.  This  per- 
mits steam  to  pass  to  the  high-pressure  side  and 
also  through  the  pipe  S'  (Figs.  33  and  36)  to 
the  left  side  of  piston  valve  M  (Fig.  37)  and 
down  through  the  adjacent  port  (as  indicated 
by  arrows)  to  the  slide  valve  chamber,  there  act- 
ing between  the  two  pistons  K  and  A"  (Figs. 
31,  33  and  37).  The  right-hand  piston,  l3eing 
the  larger,  causes  a  movement  of  the  slide  valve 
from  its  position  shown  in  Fig.  33  to  that  shown 
in  Fig.  34,  thereby  uncovering  the  steam  port 
to  the  left  of  piston  //,  which  it  forces  with  the  in- 
tercepting valve  6^(r  to  the  right.  In  this  position, 
_7^.  58.  as  shown  in  Fig.  34,  the  receiver 
openings  are  closed  by  the  pistons 
GG  and  the  poppet  valve  ^Y  has 
been  opened  by  the  bell-crank  L, 
thus  admitting  live  steam  through 
i  i^^  ^^®  intercepting  valve  cylinder  and 
^■n^cifL  port  D  to  the  low-pressure  steam 
chest,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows.  Hence  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  the  full  pressure  of  live  steam 
in  the  low-pressure  cylinder  in  starting. 

After  one  or  tvvo  revolutions  the  pressure  in  the 
receiver,  passing  down  through  the  small  connect- 
ing port  to  the  right  of  the  larger  piston  K"  (Fig. 
37)  overbalances  the  pressures  between  the  pis- 
tons, thus  moving  the  slide  valve  to  the  left,  the 
position  shown  in  Figs.  33  and  37.  According  to 
the  ordinary  action  of  a  slide  valve  this  reverses 
the  pressures  on  the  actuating  piston  B.,  forcing  it 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTI VES.        381 

to  the  left  and  opening  the  intercepting  valve. 
This  return  movement  of  the  actuating  piston  H 
detaches  the  bell-crank  L  from  the  poppet  valve 
^V  and  allows  the  latter  to  close  before  the  inter- 
cepting valve  opens.  After  this  the  locomotive 
works  compound,  the  passage  of  steam  being 
through  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  the  receiver 
and  thence  through  the  intercepting  valve  and 
low-pressure  cylinder  to  the  atmosphere,  as  pre- 
viously described. 

A  difficulty  met  with  in  many  of  the  earlier 
forms  of  compound  mechanism,  and  to  which  the 
reader's  attention  was  called  at  the  beginning  of 
this  chapter,  namely,  the  accumulation  of  dan- 
gerously high  pressure  in  the  receiver  when  run- 
ning with  the  throttle  closed,  was  overcome  in 
this  device  by  an  automatic  action  of  the  piston 
valve  M  and  the  differential  pistons  K  and  K^ 
(Fig.  37),  as  follows:  When  the  engine  is  using 
steam  the  regulating  valve  M  is  always  against 
the  right-hand  seat,  as  shown,  and  this  valve  only 
comes  into  use  when  running  without  working 
steam,  as  down  a  long  grade.  In  this  case,  if  the 
intercepting  valve  happened  to  be  closed,  the 
action  of  the  engine  would  cause  air-pressure  to 
accumulate  in  a  closed  receiver  as  there  would 
then  be  no  live  steam  available  to  cause  the 
actuating  device  to  open  the  intercepting  valve. 
Hence  it  is  arranged  so  that  air-pressure  in  the 
receiver  will  force  the  valve  M  to  the  left  and 
itself  take  the  place  of  live  steam  by  passing  to 
the  slide  valve  chamber  and  down  to  the  right 
side  of  the   actuating  piston  H,  moving  it  to  the 


382 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.        383 

left  and  opening  the  intercepting  valve,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  33.  Thus  the  small  valve  M  acts  as  a 
safety  valve,  insuring  the  opening  of  the  inter- 
cepting valve  when  live  steam  is  not  being  used, 
and  preventing  the  danger  of  excessive  receiver 
pressure  or  the  lifting  of  the  high-pressure  slide 
valve  off  its  seat  when  the  engine  is  running  with 
steam  shut  off. 

SCHENECTADY  1892  DESIGN,  WITH  SOUTHERN  PACIFIC 
MODIFICATION. 

To  render  it  possible  to  run  the  engine  "simple" 
for  any  desired  period  in  starting,  or  to  obtain 
a  maximum  power  in  case  a  train  were  stall- 
ing on  a  heavy  grade,  the  Southern  Pacific  Co. 
in  1893  added  to  many  of  their  Schenectady  com- 
pounds of  the  1892  design,  a  separate  exhaust 
valve  located  in  the  smoke-box,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
39  and  40.  The  reverse  lever  in  the  cab,  when 
placed  in  either  of  its  extreme  positions,  caused 
this  valve  to  open  and  thereby  connect  the  re- 
ceiver directly  with  the  main  exhaust  pipe,  thus 
permitting  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  exhaust 
through  the  receiver  directly  to  the  atmosphere, 
as  indicated  by  arrows  in  Fig.  39.  As  the  re- 
ceiver pressure  was  thus  kept  down  it  will  be 
readily  understood  from  the  preceding  description 
of  the  intercepting  valve  tha^t  the  latter  will 
remain  in  starting  position  as  in  Fig.  34,  and 
hence  the  locomotive  wilUvork  as  a  simple  engine 
until  such  time  as  the  engineer  pulls  the  reverse 
lever  higher  up  on  the  quadrant  and  thereby 
closes   the  separate   exhaust   valve.      Then   the 


384         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

intercepting  valve  automatically  assumes  the 
compound  position,  as  in  Fig.  33,  for  reasons 
hereinbefore  explained. 

This  modification  of  the  two-cylinder  or'  cross- 
compound  is  of  especial  note  inasmuch  as  it  was 
one  of  the  first  in  this  country  which  permitted 
the  working  of  the  locomotive  as  a  simple  engine 
for  any  desired  length  of  time,  at  the  will  of  the 
engineer.  Its  results  in  practical  operation  were 
to  greatly  reduce  the  jerking  of  trains  in  starting 
(then  a  very  serious  objection  to  many  com- 
pounds); it  gave  a  greater  maximum  power  at 
critical  periods,  and  was  withal  so  eminently  satis- 
factory that  the  reader  will  notice  the  majority 
of  the  builders  of  two-cylinder  compounds  in  this 
country  have  embodied  a  separate  exhaust  valve 
in  their  later  designs. 

SCHENj:CTADY  COMPOUND DESIGN  OF  1896.  * 

The  valve  arrangement  designed  in  1896  by 
Messrs.  A.  J.  Pitkin,  Vice-President  and  General 
Manager,  and  J.  E.  Sague,  Mechanical  Engineer  of 
the  Schenectady  Locomotive  Works,  and  used  as 
their  standard  construction  for  two-cylinder  com- 
pound locomotives,  will  be  made  clear  by  what 
follows. 

In  general  it  may  be  -said  that  this  so-called 
"intercepting  valve"  consists  of  four  separate 
parts,  namely:  (1)  An  intercepting  valve  proper, 
which  allows  steam  to  pass  to  the  low-pressure 
cylinder  from  either  the  receiver  or  the  boiler, 
according  to  its  position.  (2)  A  reducing  valve 
allowing  live  steam  at  only  a  reduced  pressure 

•  Tliis  (lesitrn  is  the  "Schenectady"  stamlard  in  1903. 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


385 


to  enter  the  low-pressure  cylinder  when  working 
simple.  (3)  An  independent  or  separate  exhaust 
valve  which,  when  open,  vents  the  exhaust  from 
the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  the  atmosphere 
through  the  exhaust  pipe  and  stack.  (  4  )  A  small 
valve  K  inside  of  the  separate  exhaust  valve,  by 
the  use  of  which  the  latter  can  be  opened  more 
easily  and  gradually. 


By  the  arrangement  of  these  valves  the  engine 
can  be  started  and  run  either  compound  or  simple 
and  can  be  changed  from  compound  to  simple,  or 
the  reverse,  at  the  will  of  the  engineer,  with  the 
throttle  and  the  reverse  lever  in  any  position;  the 
engineer  has  only  to  move  a  small  three-way*  cock 
in  the  cab  and  the  working  of  the  engine  changes 
very  smoothly  and  without  jerking  the  train. 


386         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN S  MANUAL, 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTI VE8.        387 


•a 

5  '»• 


388         EN0INEER8'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

Figs.  41  and  42  give  sections  of  smoke  arch 
and  cylinder  saddles  and  show  the  steam  passages, 
the  receiver  and  the  location  of  the  intercepting 
valve  in  the  saddle  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder 
on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  engine. 

It  will  be  noticed  by  the  dotted  lines  behind 
the  receiver  pipe  that  there  are  two  steam  pipes  as 
in  a  simple  engine,  but  the  one  (S)  leading  to  the 
intercepting  valve  on  the  low-pressure  side  is  m  ach 
smaller  than  usual,  as  it  will  only  be  required  for 
use  at  low  speeds. 

Fig.  43  shows  a  vertical  section  lengthwise 
through  the  low-pressure  cylinder  saddle, and  the 
intercepting  valve  (as  if  they  were  cut  through  at 
MN  of  Fig.  42)  and  shows  the  intercepting 
and  the  separate  exhaust  valves  in  the  position 
taken  when  the  engine  is  working  simple  and  re- 
ceiving live  steam  in  both  cylinders.  Fig.  44  is 
a  section  through  the  dash-pot  of  Fig.  43. 

Fig.  45  gives  the  same  section  as  Fig.  43,  but 
shows  the  intercepting  and  the  separate  exhaust 
valves  in  the  position  taken  when  the  engine  is 
working  compound. 

Figs.  46  and  47  show  two  sections  crosswise 
of  the  intercepting  valve  at  points  indicated  re- 
spectively by  the  lines  cd  and  ah  of  Fig.  45.  Sec- 
tion cd  shows  the  passages  G  for  admitting  live 
steam  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  and  section 
ah  shows  the  outlet  passage  U  from  the  sep- 
arate exhaust  valve  to  the  main  exhaust  pipe. 

The  part  which  each  portion  of  the  valve 
arrangement  performs  is  as  follows:  The  sepa- 
rate exhaust  valve,  when  open,  allows  the  steam 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       389 

to  exhaust  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
to  the  atmosphere  without  going  through  the 
low-pressure  cylinder,  thus  working  the  en- 
gine simple;  when  it  is  closed,  the  high-press- 
ure exhaust  must  pass  through  the  low-press- 
ure cylinder,   thus   working    the    engine   com- 

F'ifr    46  FHy.  47. 

Section  c-d        /Section  «r-3 


I 

k 


^ound.  The  intercepting  valve  closes  the 
passage  between  the  two  cylinders  when  the  sep- 
arate exhaust  valve  is  open,  so  that  steam  can- 
not go  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  the 
low-pressure  cylinder;  thus  doing  away  with 
back  pressure  on  the  high-pressure  piston  when 
the  engine  is  working  simple;  it  also  admits 
live  steam  direct .  from  the  dry-pipe  through 
the  reducing  valve  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 
When  the  separate  exhaust  valve  closes,  the 
intercepting  valve  automatically  opens  the  pas- 


390         ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

sage  between  the  two  cj^inders  and  cuts  ofE  the 
supply  of  live  steam  from  the  dry  pipe  to  the 
low-pressure  cylinder.  The  reducing  valve  works 
only  when  the  engine  is  working  simple  and 
throttles  the  steam  passing  through  it,  so  that 
the  pressure  of  steam  going  to  the  low-pressure 
cylinder  is  about  one-half  (or,  less,  according  to 
the  proportionate  sizes  of  the  two  cylinders)  of 
that  admitted  from  the  boiler  to  the  high-press- 
ure cylinder. 

The  reducing  valve  is  quite  heavily  cross-sec- 
tioned, while  the  long,  intercepting  valve  ap- 
pears next  lighter,  in  order  to  render  their  out-^ 
lines  in  Figs.  43  and  45  readily  distinguishable. 
Examining  the  two  ends  of  the  intercepting  valve, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  left  end,  exposed  to  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  through  the  drip,  is 
only  about  three-fourths  as  large  as  the  right 
end  (between  the  bridges  R  R,  Fig.  43),  exposed 
to  the  receiver;  hence,  if  the  receiver  has  little 
or  no  pressure,  the  boiler  pressure  on  the 
shoulder  of  the  intercepting  valve  automatically 
carries  it  to  the  right,  as  shown  in  Fig.  43.  The 
reducing  valve  is  automatically  opened  because 
of  the  difference  in  area  of  its  two  ends  also.  -The 
movement  of  each  of  these  valves  is  cushioned 
by  dash-pots,  as  shown.  The  separate  exhaust 
valve  is  operated  by  the  engineer  by  means  of  a 
three-way  cock  in  the  cab.  To  open  the  sepa- 
rate exhaust  valve  the  handle  of  the  three-way 
cock  is  thrown  so  as  to  admit  a  pressure  of  steam 
or  air  through  the  pipe  W  against  the  piston  J. 
Pulling  the   handle   back  relieves   the  pressure 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       391 

against  piston  J  and  the  spring  shuts  the  valve, 
as  in  Fig.  45.  All  the  engineer  has  to  do  in 
connection  with  the  operation  of  the  valves  is  to 
pull  the  handle  of  the  three-way  cock  in  the  cab 
one  way  or  the  other,  according  as  he  wishes  the 
engine  to  run  simple  or  compound.  The  engi- 
neer uses  the  handle  under  the  following  condi- 
tions: 

To  Stm't  Simple. — Under  ordinary  conditions 
this  is  not  necessary,  but  if  the  maximum  power 
of  the  engine  is  needed  to  start  a  heavy  train,  the 
engineer  pulls  the  handle  of  the  three-way  cock 
so  as  to  admit  pressure  from  the  cab  through 
pipe  W  against  the  piston  J,  Fig.  45.  This  will 
force  piston  J  into  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  43,  > 
opening  the  separate  exhaust  valve  and  hold- 
ing it  open.  The  engine  throttle  now  being 
opened,  live  steam  at  boiler  pressure  enters  the 
chamber  E  from  the  small  steam  pipe  S  before 
mentioned  and  forces  the  intercepting  valve  to 
the  right  against  the  seat  FF,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
43.  The  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure 
cylinder  now  passes  through  the  receiver  and  is 
exhausted  through  the  separate  exhaust  valve  to 
an  annular  chamber  U  connected  with  the  main 
exhaust  to  the  stack,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow  in 
Fig.  43.  (See  also  Fig.  47.)  Steam  also  enters 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  from  chamber  E  through 
the  reducing  valve  and  the  annular  ports  G  in 
the  intercepting  valve  (See  Figs.  43  and  46), 
and  is  exhausted  in  the  usual  way.  The  reducing 
valve  prevents  the  full  boiler  pressure  from  reach- 
ing the  low-pressure  cylinder.  As  will  be  seer  from 


392  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

Figs.  43  and  45,  the  reducing  valve  is  partly  bal- 
anced by  its  smaller  left  end  being  open  to  the  at- 
mosphere through  a  small  groove  leading  to  the 
chamber  having  an  open  drip,  and  thus  the  boiler 
pressure  acting  on  the  unbalanced  area  throws  the 
valve  open — to  the  right.  When  the  pressure  in 
the  intercepting  valve  cavity  on  the  right  of  the 
reducing  valve  becomes  high  enough,  it  will  throw 
the  valve  to  the  left,  because  it  acts  on  the  whole 
area  of  the  valve;  the  result  is  that  the  steam  is 
throttled  to  the  proper  pressure  desired  for  the 
low-pressure  cylinder. 

To  Work  Compound. — Having  started  the  train, 
when  the  engineer  wishes  to  change  the  engine 
from  simple  w^orking  to  compound,  he  pushes  the 
handle  of  the  three-way  cock  to  its  first  position 
which,  relieving  the  pressure  on  piston  J  through 
pipe  W,  allows  the  spring  to  act  to  the  right  and 
close  the  separate  exhaust  valve,  as  in  Fig.  45. 
As  soon  as  this  valve  is  closed  the  pressure  in  the 
receiver,  having  no  outlet,  rises  and  presses  the 
intercepting  valve  to  the  left  against  the  pressure 
from  chamber  E,  w^hich  acts  only,  as  stated, 
upon  the  shoulder  of  the  intercepting  valve.  The 
receiver  pressure  holds  the  intercepting  valve  to 
the  left,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45,  thereby  closing  the 
ports  G  and  opening  a  free  passage  from  the 
receiver  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  as  indicated 
by  the  arrows,  and  the  engine  works  compound. 
While  working  compound,  which  is  the  usual  way 
of  working  the  engine,  both  the  reducing  and  the 
intercepting  valves  are  held  to  the  left  against 
ground   joint  seats.     This   should   prevent   any 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTI VES.       393 

steam   which  might  leak  by  the  packing  rings 
from  constantly  escaping  at  the  drip. 

To  Change  from  Compound  to  Simple. — With 
the  engine  running  compound,  if  the  engineer 
wishes  to  change  to  simple  because  of  a  very 
heavy  grade,  he  has  only  to  pull  the  three-way 
cock  handle  to  the  same  position  as  for  starting 
simple.  Then  piston  J  first  opens  the  small  valve 
K  and  then  the  separate  exhaust  valve.  The 
small  valve  ^relieves  the  pressure  more  gradually 
than  if  the  larger  valve  were  opened  at  once. 
As  soon  as  the  separate  exhaust  valve  is  opened 
the  pressure  in  the  receiver  escapes  through  it 
and  becomes  so  low  that  the  intercepting  valve  is 
again  forced  to  the  right  (as  in  Fig.  43)  against 
its  seat  F  by  the  steam  pressure  from  chamber 
E,  and  the  engine  works  simple  as  in  starting. 

To  Start  as  an  Automatic  Compound. — If  the 
separate  exhaust  valve  is  left  closed,  as  in  Fig. 
45,  the  engine  will  start  as  an  automatic  com- 
pound when  the  throttle  is  opened,  for  the 
pressure  from  chamber  E  will  force  the  intercept- 
ing valve  to  the  right,  as  in  Fig.  43^  thus  admit- 
ting live  steam  through  the  reducing  valve  and 
ports  G  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  high-pressure  cylinder  exhausts 
into  a  closed  receiver  for  a  few  strokes.  This 
pressure,  accumulating  in  the  receiver,  will  then 
automatically  close  the  ports  G  by  moving  the 
intercepting  valve  to  the  left,  as  in  Fig.  45,  and 
the  engine  thereafter  runs  compound. 

Accidents  to  Schenectady  Compounds — the  Autor 
matic  Compound  of  1892.     What  should  be  done 


394  BNOINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

in  case  of  a  break-down  on  the  road,  necessi- 
tating the  disconnecting  of  the  high-pressure 
side?  If  but  a  short  distance  to  go  and  a  slow 
speed  would  suffice,  clamp  the  high-pressure 
slide  valve  in  center  and  permit  the  engine  to 
run  by  the  admission  of  live  steam  through 
the  small  pipe  *S''  and  the  poppet  valve  N  to  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  (Figs.  33  and  34).  If 
the  intercepting  valve  is  out  of  order,  block  the 
poppet  valve  N  open,  that  is,  up.  If  it  were  re- 
quired to  run  at  considerable  speed,  this  small 
pipe  S^  would  give  insufficient  supply,  in  which 
case  the  high-pressure  slide  valve  should  be 
blocked  clear  back  (much  farther  than  its  ordi- 
nary travel  carries  it),  so  as  to  uncover  the 
exhaust  port,  thus  admitting  live  steam  direct 
to  the  receiver.  If  the  steam  chest  is  large 
enough  to  place  the  high-pressure  valve  as 
described,  and  the  intercepting  valve  is  not  de- 
ranged, the  engine  would  run  at  full  speed  with 
the  low-pressure  side.  If  out  of  order,  the  inter- 
cepting valve  should  be  held  open  (in  the  position 
as  shown  in  Fig.  33)  by  clamping  the  stem  be- 
tween the  stuffing  boxes.  In  all  cases  the  throttle 
should  be  handled  easily  to  prevent  a  too  rapid 
flow  of  boiler  pressure  to  the  large  low-pressure 
cylinder  and  the  consequent  liability  of  jerking 
the  train  or  causing  damage  to  this  cylinder. 

What  should  be  done  if  it  becomes  necessary 
to  take  down  the  low-pressure  side  of  the  engine? 
The  engine  could  be  moved  a  short  distance  with 
the  cylinder  cocks  open  or  the  indicator  plugs  re- 
moved on  the  high-pressure  side,  but  as  most  en- 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.       395 

gines  of  this  class  have  either  a  large  steam  chest 
or  an  "Allen  "  ported  slide  valve,  the  valve  can 
be  clamped  back  far  enough  to  uncover  the  low- 
pressure  exhaust  port,  and  thus  run  at  full  speed. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  block  both  the  low-press- 
ure crosshead  and  valve  clear  back  and  unscrew 
the  relief  valves  or  take  off  the  front  cylinder 
head  on  that  side  to  mak"e  an  exhaust  opening 
from  the  receiver.  If  the  intercepting  valve  is 
out  of  order,  it  must  be  securely  clamped  open, 
as  in  Fig.  33,  otherwise  the  opening  between 
the  receiver  and  the  low-pressure  steam  chest 
would  be  closed. 

In  this  last  procedure,  with  the  exhaust  other 
than  through  the  stack,  would  the  engine  steam 
with  much  of  a  train?  No;  but  a  limited  amount 
of  steam  could  be  maintained  by  the  use  of  the 
blower  for  creating  draught. 

What  w^ould  be  the  effect  of  the  removal  of  the 
slide  valve  on  the  disabled  side?  This  would 
give  a  free  port  opening  under  all  circumstances, 
but  w^ould  generally  consume  too  much  time  to 
be  practicable. 

What  prevents  the  leakage  of  live  steam  into 
the  receiver  when  the  intercepting  valve  is  closed, 
as  in  Fig.  34,  there  being  no  packing  rings  in  the 
two  pistons  GG"!  The  live  steam  pressure  acts 
from  below  when  starting,  so  as  to  hold  these 
pistons  tight  against  ports  of  the  receiver.  Fig. 
85   illustrates  this  clearly,    if  the   intercepting 


396  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

valve   were   there   shown   closed,    as   live   steam 
would  then  be  below  pistons  GG. 

What  would  be  the  result  if  the  wiper  L  would 
strike  the  poppet  valve  N  (Pigs.  33  and  34) 
before  the  intercepting  valve  i)istons  GG  closed 
their  ports?  Live  steam  would  blow  through  to 
the  receiver  and  produce  a  back  pressure  on  the 
high-pressure  side. 

How  can  this  be  prevented?  Pistons  GG  have 
sufficient  lap  to  allow  of  their  closing  before  the 
wiper  L  strikes  the  poppet  valve  N,  and  the 
adjustable  tappet  on  the  intercepting  valve  stem 
should  be  set  so  as  to  cause  this.  If  the  tappet  is 
set  too  far  back,  valve  N  would  not  be  opened  at 
all  and,  as  a  consequence,  no  live  steam  would  be 
admitted  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  in  starting. 

If  the  operating  piston  H  should  break,  what 
position  would  the  intercepting  valve  probably 
take?  On  account  of  the  unbalanced  area  of  the 
stem,  it  would  probably  move  open  to  the  left 
as  for  compound  working,  Fig.  33. 

Accidents  to  Schenectady  design  of  1892,  with 
Southern  Pacific  Modifications. — If  it  became 
necessary  to  disconnect  the  high-pressure  side  of 
the  engine,  what  should  be  done?  The  same  as. 
with  the  1892  Schenectady  system. 

Would  there  be  any  difference  in  case  the  low- 
pressure  side  broke  down?  Yes;  disconnect  the 
broken  side  as  usual  (see  instructions  for  simple 
engines  in  Part  First  of  the  Manual)  and  run  with 
reverse  lever  in  full  gear,  if  for  a  short  distance  or 
a  low  speed  only  is  required.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
run  for  a  considerable  distance  at  a  good  speed  it 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES.        397 

would  be  advisable  to  disconnect  the  separate  ex- 
haust valve  levers  from  their  connection  to  the 
reach-rod  and  properly  secure  them  in  either  ex- 
treme position,  so  as  to  hold  the  valve  open.  The 
engine  can  then  be  "hooked-up,"  that  is,  the  re- 
verse lever  pulled  up  toward  its  central  position, 
to  correspond  to  the  demands  of  the  service. 

Accidents  to  Scheiiecfadij  Compounds — design  of 
1896. — What  should  be  done  in  case  the  high- 
pressure  side  had  to  be  disconnected  ?  Ordinari]  y, 
open  the  separate  exhaust  valve  ^'  and  do  nothing 
different  than  with  a  simple  engine;  but  to  obtain 
greater  speed  than  the  supply  .of  live  steam  to 
the  low-pressure  cylinder  through  its  small  steam 
pipe  would  permit,  the  high-pressure  valve  should 
be  secured  in  such  a  position,  if  possible,  as  will 
uncover  its  exhaust  port,  thereby  admitting  live 
steam  to  the  receiver  and  thence  to  the  low- 
pressure  cylinder.  In  this  case  leave  the  separate 
exhaust  valve  closed  and  handle  the  throttle 
easily  so  as  not  to  cause  constant  opening  of  the 
safety  valves  on  the  low-pressure  side. 

What  is  necessary  with  the  low-pressure  side 
disconnected  ?  Open  the  separate  exhaust  valve 
and  allow  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  exhaust 
to  the  stack  through  its  connection.  While  con- 
siderable train  could  thus  be  handled,  it  would 
not  be  done  at  anything  but  a  slow  speed,  unless 
the  low-pressure  slide  valve  were  placed  so  as  to 


*  While  not  absolutely  necessary  to  open  the  separate  exhaust 
valve  for  this  case,  it  is  best  to  do  so  tliat  there  may  be  no 
accumulation  of  pressure  in  the  receiver  should  the  high-pressure 
Valve  leak. 


398  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

uncover  its  exhaust  port  and  the  separate  ex- 
haust valve  left  closed. 

What  is  done  to  prevent  full  boiler  pressure 
from  reaching  the  low-pressure  cylinder  in  case 
the  reducing  valve  becomes  defective  or  broken? 
Pop  or  safety  valves  are  placed  on  the  chest  and 
both  heads  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  they 
are  set  at  about  one  hundred  pounds,  the  highest 
pressure  deemed  advisable  in  so  large  a  cylinder. 

In  case  of  a  broken  intercepting  valve  what 
precautions  should  be  taken?  Run  the  engine 
compound  only  and  do  not  stop  the  engine  with 
the  low-pressure  side  on  center. 

Why  must  the  oil  dash-pot  be  kept  filled  with 
oil?  The  flow  of  oil  from  one  side  of  the  dash- 
pot  piston  to  the  other  prevents  sudden  move- 
ments of  and  serious  jars  to  the  intercepting  valve. 

How  can  the  rapidity  of  this  movement  be  reg- 
ulated ?  By  a  greater  or  less  opening  of  the  valve 
P,  Figs.  43  and  44,  as  this  valve  regulates  the 
flow  of  oil  from  one  side  of  the  dash-pot  piston  to 
the  other.  A  slight  opening  causes  a  slow  move- 
ment, while  a  wide  opening  makes  possible  a  too 
rapid  movement. 

What  would  be  most  liable  to  cause  breakage 
to  the  intercepting  valve  ?  Allowing  the  oil  dash- 
pot  to  become  partially  or  wholly  empty. 

What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used  in  this  dash- 
pot?  Only  mineral  oil,  thinner,  if  anything,  than 
ordinary  engine  oil. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  the  key  shown  in  the 
dash-pot  (Fig.  44)?  To  prevent  the  intercepting 
valve  from  turning  around. 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES,        399 

With  this  compound,  what  pressure  from  the 
cab  is  used  to  operate  the  separate  exhaust  valve  ? 
Either  air  or  steam. 

Why  is  air  pressure  generally  considered  pref- 
erable? On  account  of  the  absence  of  moisture 
therein.  As  the  separate  exhaust  valve  piston  J 
and  its  cylinder  (Figs.  43  and  45)  project  from 
the  front  of  the  cylinder  saddle  and  are  exposed  to 
currents  of  cold  air,  the  use  of  steam  therein  and  a 
lack  of  proper  drainage  might  cause  them  to  freeze 
in  cold  weather. 

What  objection  is  there  to  the  use  of  air? 
Should  the  air  pump  stop  or  the  pressure  other- 
wise become  exhausted,  as  in  switching  and  pick- 
ing up  a  large  number  of  air-brake  cars,  there 
might  be  insufficient  pressure  to  hold  the  valve 
open  against  the  receiver  pressure. 

How  is  this  objection  overcome  when  air  is 
used  for  this  purpose?  Besides  the  air.  connec- 
tion to  the  three-way  cock  in  the  cab,  there  is  a 
steam  connection;  closing  the  one  and  opening 
the  other,  quickly  furnishes  an  alternative  j)ress- 
ure  for  operation. 

What  would  be  the  result  if  both  the  steam  and 
the  air  connections  were  left  open  ?  There  would 
be  no  effect  upon  the  engine  itself,  but  the  steam 
would  fill  the  whole  air-brake  system  with  water 
and  seriously  affect  the  operation  of  the  brakes. 


THE   MALLET   LOCOMOTIVE. 

Mallet  Articulated  Compound  Locomotive 
(American  Locomotive  Company). — The  Mallet 
articulated  comiiound  locomotive  is  one  having 
two  sets  of  cylinders,  compounded  together  and 
driving  independent  groups  of  wheels.  The  two 
sets  of  cylinders  are  supplied  with  steam  from  a 
single  boiler ;  which  makes  it  practically  two  loco- 
motives combined  in  one,  and  having  only  one 
boiler.  The  rear  group  of  wheels  is  carried  in 
frames  rigidly  attached  to  the  boiler  in  the  usual 
manner,  while  the  frames  which  carry  the  front 
group  of  wheels  are  not  secured  to  the  boiler,  but 
support  it  by  means  of  sliding  bearings.  There  is 
a  hinged  connection  between  the  frames  of  the 
front  engine  and  those  of  the  rear  engine,  about 
which  the  former  is  permitted  a  limited  swing  in 
relation  to  the  latter.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  front 
group  is  a  truck  which  swivels  radially  about  its 
articulated  connection  with  the  rear  group,  when 
the  locomotive  passes  through  a  curve.  It  is  from 
this  feature  that  the  articulated  type  of  locomotive 
derives  its  name. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  only  the  rear  group  of 
wheels  is  carried  in  rigid  frames,  the  articulated 
type  of  locomotive  provides  a  short  rigid  wheel 
base  capable  of  passing  through  curves  of  short 
radius.  At  the  same  time,  the  total  number  of 
wheels  is  greater  than  in  the  ordinary  types  of 
locomotives ;  and  the  weight  is  distributed  over  a 

(400) 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  4Ul 

greater  number  of  axles.  Consequently,  an  enor- 
mous weight  with  corresponding  tractive  power 
may  be  provided  in  this  type  without  an  excessive 
weight  per  wheel  on  the  rail.  In  an  articulated 
compound  locomotive  having  twice  as  many  driv- 
ing wheels  as  a  given  locomotive  of  the  rigid- 
frame  type,  double  the  tractive  power  of  the  latter 
is  available,  with  the  same  weight  per  driving 
wheel  on  the  rail  and  with  no  increase  in  the  length 
of  the  rigid  wheel  base.  Or  vice  versa,  with  the 
same  tractive  power  in  each  case,  the  weight  per 
driving  wheel  on  the  rail  of  the  articulated  com- 
pound locomotive  may,  by  the  use  of  the  proper 
wheel  arrangement,  be  reduced  to  one-half  of  that 
of  a  given  locomotive  of  any  of  the  types  in  ordi- 
nary use. 

The  work  being  divided  between  two  sets  of  pis- 
tons, crank  pins,  rods,  and  driving  axles,  an  enor- 
mous tractive  power  is  obtained  in  the  articulated 
compound  locomotive  with  practically  no  increase 
in  the  weights  of  the  moving  parts  over  those  of  a 
locomotive  of  the  rigid-frame  type,  having  half  the 
tractive  power ;  or  with  the  same  tractive  power  in 
each  case  the  moving  parts  of  the  articulated  loco- 
motive may  be  made  much  lighter  than  those  of 
locomotives  of  other  types. 

In  addition  to  the  advantages  due  to  its  wheel 
arrangement,  the  articulated  compound  locomo- 
tive possesses  all  those  resulting  from  comj)ound- 
ing  the  steam.  This  type  of  compound  locomotive 
is  what  is  known  as  a  two-stage  compound ;  that 
is,  the  steam  is  used  successively  in  two  sets  of 
cylinders.    Steam  from  the  boiler  is  admitted  to 


402  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIBEMEN'S  MANUAL. 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  403 

the  first  set  or  high-pressure  cylinders,  which  ordi- 
narily drive  the  rear  group  of  wheels ;  and,  having 
done  work  in  those  cylinders,  is  then  used  over 
again  in  the  second  set  or  low-j^ressure  cylinders 
which  are  connected  to  the  front  group  of  wheels. 
From  the  low-jDressure  cylinders,  the  steam  is 
exhausted  to  the  atmosphere. 

Between  the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders 
and  connecting  the  two  is  a  large  pipe  called  the 
receiver,  into  which  the  steam  from  the  high- 
pressure  cylinders  exhausts  'when  the  locomotive 
is  working  compound.  The  receiver  is  simply  a 
reservoir  in  which  the  exhaust  steam  from  the 
high-pressure  cylinders  is  stored  until  it  is  re- 
quired by  the  low-pressure  cylinders.  From  the 
received,  the  steam  is  admitted  into  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinders  by  their  valves  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  low-pressure  cylinders  have  a  larger  piston 
area  than  the  high-pressure  cylinders,  the  ratios 
between  the  two  being  such  that,  at  the  ordinary 
working  cut-off,  the  steam  at  the  lower  pressure 
per  square  inch  acting  against  the  larger  piston 
area,  exerts  the  same  force  as  the  higher  pressure 
steam  acting  on  the  smaller  area.  Consequently, 
the  high  and  low  pressure  cylinders  having  the 
same  stroke,  each  set  of  cylinders  ordinarily  does 
practically  the  same  amount  of  work. 

By  using  the  steam  successively  in  two  sets  of 
cylinders,  a  greater  range  of  expansion  is  obtained 
than  in  a  simple  or  single  expansion  locomotive. 
In  other  words,  the  difference  between  the  pres- 
sure of  the  steam  entering  the  high-pressure  cylin- 
ders and  the  pressure  it  has  when  the  exhaust 


404  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIBEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

from  the  low-pressure  cylinders  opens,  is  greater 
than  in  the  case  of  the  simple  locomotive. 

In  a  simple  locomotive,  the  steam  is  ordinarily- 
expanded  only  four  times,  while  in  a  two-stage 
compound  six  or  seven  expansions  are  obtained. 
As  a  result,  more  work  is  performed  by  the  same 
amount  of  steam  in  a  compound  than  in  a  simple 
locomotive ;  and  a  considerable  saving  in  coal  and 
water  consumption  is  thereby  effected. 

Moreover,  compounding  divides  the  range  of 
temperature  between  the  two  sets  of  cylinders;  so 
that  the  condensation  in  the  cylinders  is  reduced, 
which  effects  a  further  saving  in  fuel  and  water 
consumption. 

In  every  compound  locomotive  some  provision 
must  be  made  for  admitting  steam  direct  from  the 
boiler  to  the  low-pressure  cylinders  in  starting  and 
until  the  exhaust  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders 
supplies  the  low-pressure  cylinders  with  steam. 
Also,  provision  is  usually  made  by  which  in  case 
of  emergency  when  additional  hauling  capacity  is 
required,  the  locomotive  may  be  changed  from 
working  compoimd  into  simple  with  an  increase 
in  power.  In  this  articulated  compound  locomo- 
tive, these  functions  are  performed  by  a  special 
mechanism  called  the  intercepting  valve,  which  is 
located  between  the  receiver  and  the  exhaust 
passages  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders. 

Another  device  used  by  some  locomotive  build- 
ers, in  place  of  the  intercepting  valve,  is  an  ar- 
rangement by  which,  on  opening  a  valve  operated 
from  the  cab,  communication  is  established  be- 
tween the  two  ends  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  405 

through  a  by-pass  pipe;  and  live  steam  reduced 
in  pressure  by  j)assing  through  this  pipe  is  admit- 
ted to  the  receiver  and  so  to  the  low-pressure 
cylinders. 

With  the  by-pass  arrangement,  when  the  loco- 
motive is  working  simple,  live  steam  is  necessarily 
admitted  to  both  sides  of  the  high-pressure  pis- 
tons. Consequently,  these  pistons  are  very  nearly 
balanced.  At  the  same  time,  the  live  steam  which 
is  admitted  to  the  low-pressure  cylinders  is  re- 
duced in  pressure.  The  result  is  that  under 
these  conditions,  when  the  locomotive  is  starting 
or  working  simple,  practically  all  of  the  work  is 
done  by  the  low-pressure  cylinders,  and  little,  if 
any,  increase  in  power  is  secured. 

In  the  American  Locomotive  Company's  sys- 
tem of  compounding,  the  intercepting  valve  is  so 
designed  that  when  the  engine  is  working  sim- 
ple the  exhaust  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
passes  directly  to  the  atmosphere  and  the  valve 
cuts  off  communication  between  the  receiver  and 
the  exhaust  side  of  the  high-pressure  pistons,  thus 
relieving  them  of  back  pressure,  except  that  of 
the  steam  exhausting  to  the  atmosphere.  More- 
over, the  live  steam  from  the  boiler  reduced  to 
a  pressure  of  somewhat  above  the  ordinary  pres- 
sure in  the  receiver  is  admitted  to  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinder.  Hence,  the  low-pressure  pistons 
are  exerting  more  power  than  when  working 
compound.  This  additional  power,  added  to  that 
secured  in  the  high-pressure  cylinders,  because 
of  the  reduction  of  the  back  pressure,  gives  a 
total  increase  in  power  when  working  simple  of 


406  ENGINEEHS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

about  20  per  cent.  The  intercepting  valve  also 
automatically  regulates  the  pressure  of  the  live 
steam  entering  the  receiver  when  starting  and 
when  working  simple,  keeping  it  at  such  a  pres- 
sure that  each  of  the  four  cylinders  does  prac- 
tically the  same  amount  of  work. 

INTERCEPTING  VALVE. 

Among  the  distinctive  features  of  this  articu- 
lated compound  locomotive,  practically,  the  only 
ones  which  enter  into  its  operation  are  the  inter- 
cepting valve,  the  power  reversing  gear,  and  the 
by-pass  valves. 

The  intercepting  valve  is  identical  in  principle 
with  that  used  on  the  two-cylinder  cross-com- 
pound locomotives  known  as  the  Eichmond  Com- 
pound, differing  from  the  latter  only  in  certain 
modifications  of  the  design  which  the  use  of  four 
cylinders  instead  of  two  necessitates.  Engineers, 
therefore,  who  have  operated  the  two-cylinder 
cross-compound  of  this  build,  will  be  pe'rfectly 
familiar  with  the  construction  and  operation  of 
the  intercepting  valve  as  applied  to  this  locomo- 
tive. 

This  valve  is  located  in  the  saddle  of  the  left 
high-pressure  cylinder,  to  the  left  of  the  vertical 
ana  above  the  horizontal  center  line  of  the  cylin- 
ders. It  consists,  in  reality,  of  three  valves,  viz., 
the  intercepting  valve,  the  reducing  valve  or 
sleeve,  and  the  emergency  or  high-pressure  valve. 

The  various  parts  comprising  the  whole  mech- 
anism are  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  2. 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


407 


Parts  2,  3  and  5  constitute  the  intercepting 
valve  proper. 

This  valve  shuts  off,  at  the  proper  time,  com- 
munication between  the  receiver  and  the  hii?h- 
pressure  cylinders,  to  prevent  the  pressure  in 
the  receiver  backing  up  against  the  high-pressure 


Fig.  2.     Parts  of  the  Intercepting  Valve. 

No.  5.  Unbalancing  Valve. 

No.  6.  Emergency  or  High-pres- 
sure Exhaust  Valve. 

No.  7.  Emergency  Valve  Cham- 
ber Head. 


No.  1.  Reducing  Valve  or  Sleeve. 
No.  2.  Intercepting  Valve. 
No.  3.  Dash-pot  Piston. 
No.  4.  Intercepting  Valve  Cham- 
ber Head. 


pistons,  when  the  locomotive  is  working  with  live 
steam  in  all  four  cylinders. 

The  reducing  valve  or  sleeve,  1,  fits  on  the  stem 
of  the  intercepting  valve,  2,  along  which  it  is  free 
to  slide  longitudinally.    Its  duty  is  three-fold: 
First,  to  close  the  intercepting  valve  in  start- 


408  ENGINEEBS'  AND  FIBEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

ing  and  when  the  locomotive  is  changed  from 

compound  to  simple  working; 

Second,  to  let  live  steam  from  the  boiler  into 

the  receiver  and  low-pressure  steam  chests  in 

starting  and  when  the  locomotive  is  working 

simple; 

Third,  to  regulate  the  supply   of  this   live 

steam  and  keep  its  pressure  at  a  predetermined 

amount. 

The  emergency  or  high-pressure  exhaust  valve, 
6,  which  is  located  at  one  of  the  outer  ends  of  the 
intercepting  valve  chamber,  is  the  device  which 
makes  it  possible  to  change  the  locomotive  from 
compound  to  simple  working  (that  is,  using  live 
steam  in  all  four  cylinders). 

A  wrought  iron  pipe  leads  from  the  emergency 
valve  chamber  along  the  left  side  of  the  locomo- 
tive to  an  elbow  at  the  rear  of  the  main  exhaust 
pipe.  This  elbow  connects  viith  a  passage  sur- 
rounding the  main  exhaust  opening. 

When  the  locomotive  is  changed  into  simple 
working,  the  emergency  valve,  6,  is  opened,  which 
allows  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure 
cylinders  to  pass  through  the  wrought  iron  pipe 
to  the  exhaust  pipe  in  the  smoke  box  and  to  the 
atmosphere. 

Opening  of  the  emergency  valve  is  accomplished 
by  opening  the  emergency  operating  valve,  which 
is  indicated  by  the  letter  N  in  Fig.  3.  AVhen  the 
emergency  operating  valve  is  closed  (when  the 
locomotive  is  working  compound),  the  handle  of 
the  valve  points  foruard. 

To  open  the  emergency  operating  valve,  N,  and 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  409 

change  the  locomotive  into  simple,  the  handle 
must  be  turned  so  as  to  point  backivard.  The 
opening  and  closing  of  the  emergency  valve,  6,  is 
thus  under  the  control  of  the  engineer. 

It  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  emer- 
gency valve,  as  its  name  indicates,  should  ordi- 
narily be  used  only  when  the  locomotive  cannot 
otherwise  move  the  train;  and,  as  soon  as  a  speed 
of  three  to  four  miles  per  hour  has  been  attained, 
the  locomotive  should  be  changed  back  to  com- 
pound. 

Except  for  changing  the  locomotive  into  simple, 
the  movements  of  all  the  parts  of  the  intercepting 
valves  are  automatic. 

The  illustrations  in  Figs.  4,  5,  6  and  7  show  the 
entire  mechanism  assembled,  and  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  various  steam  pipes  and  passages. 
These  illustrations  also  give  the  intercepting 
valve  in  its  four  different  positions ;   namely : 

Fig.  4,  the  moment  after  the  throttle  is  open 
when  starting  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  reduc- 
ing valve,  1,  being  open  and  the  intercepting 
valve,  2,  and  the  emergency  valve,  6,  closed ; 

Fig.  5,  at  the  time  when  the  predetermined 
pressure  has  been  reached  in  the  receiver  pipe, 
when  the  reducing  valve,  1,  is  closed  and  the 
other  parts  remain  in  the  same  position  a«  in 
Fig.  4; 

Fig.  6,  in  the  compound  position,  when  the 
intercepting  valve,  2,  is  open  and  the  reducing 
valve,  1,  and  the  emergency  valve,  6,  are  closed ; 
Fig.  7,  in  simple  position,  when  the  emer- 
gency or  high-pressure  exhaust  valve,  6,  and 


410  ENGINEEES '  AND  FIREMEN 'S  MAN  UAL. 


Fig.  3. 


Interior  View  of  the  Cab  of  a  Mallet  Articulated  Com- 
POUND  Locomotive. 


N.  Emergency   Operating  Valve. 
O.  Engineers'     Straiglit     Air 

Bralie   Valve. 
Q.  Main  Reverse  Lever. 


P.  Engineers'    Automatic    Brake 

Valve. 
R,  Auxiliary  Reverse  Lever. 


MALLEI  LOCOMOTIVES.  411 

the  reducing  valve,  1,  are  open,  and  the  inter- 
cepting valve,  2,  is  closed. 

In  these  illustrations,  the  course  of  the  steam 
is  indicated  by  arrows,  and  helps  to  make  clear 
the  explanation  of  the  principle  and  operation  of 
this  system  of  compounding. 

As  will  be  seen  from  Fig.  7,  the  reducing  valve, 
1,  is  so  fitted  on  the  stem  of  the  intercepting 
valve,  2,  that  when  the  former  opens,  it  closes 
the  latter,  and  vice  versa.  The  reducing  valve, 
however,  can  be  closed  without  opening  the  inter- 
cepting valve. 

OPERATION  OF  THE  INTERCEPTING  VALVEc 

Referring  to  Fig.  4,  live  steam  from  the  boiler 
is,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows,  always  admitted 
through  the  cored  passages  in  the  cylinder  cast- 
ing to  the  chamber.  A,  formed  in  the  intercepting 
valve  chamber  head,  4,  and  surrounding  the  re- 
ducing valve,  1.  Chamber  C  communicates  with 
the  receiver  pipe  or  steam  passage  to  the  low- 
pressure  cylinders,  and  chamber  F  connects  di- 
rectly with  the  exhaust  passages  from  the  high- 
^pressure  cylinders.  The  chamber  L  communicates 
with  chamber  M  through  the  emergency  or  high- 
pressure  exhaust  valve,  6.  The  latter  chamber  is 
connected  with  the  exhaust  pipe  in  the  smoke  box, 
as  previously  explained. 

With  the  intercepting  valve  in  the  position 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  steam  from  the  boiler,  following 
the  course  of  the  arrows,  flows  through  the  pas- 
sage in  the  left  high-pressure  cylinder  to  cham- 


412  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

ber  A,  and  acting  against  the  shoulder,  E,  of  the 
reducing  valve,  1,  has  forced  this  valve  open  or 
inward,  closing  the  intercepting  valve,  2,  and  un- 
covering the  ports,  B.  This  allows  live  steam  to 
pass  into  the  chamber  C,  and  thence  into  the 
receiver  and  to  the  low-joressure  steam  chests  and 
cylinders.  Live  steam,  at  the  same  time,  passes 
through  the  high-pressure  valve  into  the  high- 
pressure  cylinders  in  the  ordinary  'waj.  The  in- 
tercepting valve,  2,  being  closed,  communication 
between  the  exhaust  passage,  F,  from  the  high- 
l)ressure  cylinders  and  the  chamber,  C,  is  cut  off. 
This  thus  prevents  the  jDressure  in  this  latter 
chamber  from  backing  up  against  the  exhaust 
side  of  the  high-pressure  pistons;  and,  conse- 
quently, these  start  free  from  back  pressure; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  the  low-pressure  cylin- 
ders are  being  supplied  with  steam  direct  from 
the  boiler.  The  pressure  of  this  steam  is  so  regu- 
lated by  the  reducing  valve,  1,  that  it  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  boiler  pressure  as  the  high- 
pressure  piston  areas  bear  to  the  low-pressure 
piston  areas,  thus  making  the  work  in  all  four 
cylinders  equal  (the  higli  and  low  pressure  cylin- 
ders having  the  same  length  of  stroke).  For  in- 
stance, if  the  area  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  is 
two  and  one-half  times  the  area  of  the  high-pres- 
sure cylinder,  then  the  reducing  valve,  1,  would 
be  so  designed  as  to  reduce  the  pressure  of  the 
live  steam  admitted  by  it  to  chamber  C,  to  1  -f-  2.5 
or  40  per  cent,  of  the  boiler  pressure. 

From  the  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  loco- 
motive automatically  starts  with  live  steam  in  all 


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413 


414  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIEEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

four  cylinders,  or,  in  other  words,  as  a  single 
expansion  engiae. 

Piston,  3,  and  the  chamber,  H,  in  the  outer  end 
of  the  intercepting  valve  chamber  head,  4,  consti- 
tute simply  an  air  dash-pot,  to  prevent  slamming 
of  the  valves  when  changing  from  compound  to 
simple  when  running. 

Fig.  5  represents  the  intercepting  valve  at  the 
moment  when  the  predetermined  maximum  pres- 
sure in  the  low-pressure  steam  chests  is  reached. 
In  this  case,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  positions 
of  the  valves  are  the  same  as  in  Fig.  4,  except  that 
the  reducing  valve,  1,  has  been  moved  out,  closing 
the  ports,  B,  thus  cutting  off  the  supply  of  live 
steam  to  the  chamber  C,  and  to  the  low-pressure 
steam  chests ;  until  by  the  movement  of  the  low- 
pressure  pistons  the  pressure  in  that  chamber 
has  been  lowered  to  the  required  amount. 

The  reducing  valve  automatically  keeps  the 
pressure  in  the  chamber  C  down  to  the  desired 
amount  because  of  the  fact  that  the  area  of  the 
shoulder  E  is,  as  previously  stated,  usually  1  -^  2.5 
or  40  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  end  D  of  the 
valve.  Consequently,  when  the  pressure  in  the 
chamber  C  exceeds  40  per  cent,  of  the  boiler  pres- 
sure, it  will  overcome  the  force  of  the  steam  at 
boiler  pressure,  acting  on  the  shoulder  E;  and 
move  the  reducing  valve,  1,  outward,  closing 
ports  B. 

The  intercepting  valve  automatically  assumes 
the  compound  position,  Fig.  6,  after  one  or  two 
revolutions  of  the  driving  wheels.  In  this  posi- 
tion, the  intercepting  valve  2  is  opened,  allowing 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


415 


the  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylin- 
ders to  pass  into  the  chamber  C,  and  so  to  the 
receiver    and    the    low-pressure    cylinders.     The 


Fig.    5.     Position    of    the    Intercepting    Valve    when    the    Pre- 
determined Pressure  in  the  Receiver  Pipe  Has  Been  Reached. 

Reducing  Valve  or  Sleeve  1  is  closed;  the  other  parts  remain  the  same  as  in 
Fig.  4.  Live  steam  is  cut  off  from  the  receiver  until  the  pressure  is  reduced  to 
the  proper  amount. 


opening  of  the  intercepting  valve  2  has  closed  the 
reducing  valve,  1,  which  thus  cuts  off  the  supply 
of  live  steam  to  the  chamber  C  and  receiver. 


\ 

416  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

The  principle  by  which  these  movements  are 
automatically  performed  may  need  some  explana- 
tion. The  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure 
cylinders  in  the  chamber  F  acting  against  the 
inner  face  of  the  intercepting  valve,  2,  and  also 
against  the  inner  end  of  the  intercepting  valve 
stem  (being  admitted  to  the  chamber  L  through 
the  holes  in  the  unbalancing  valve,  5),  tends  to 
open  the  intercepting  valve  2.  This  force  is  re- 
sisted by  the  pressure  on  the  outer  face  of  the 
intercepting  valve  2,  the  pressure  on  the  outer 
and  inner  faces  of  the  unbalancing  valve,  5,  being 
balanced.  The  combined  areas  of  the  face  of  the 
intercepting  valve  2  and  the  end  of  its  stem  are 
greater  than  the  area  of  the  outer  face  of  the 
valve.  Thus  steam  in  the  chamber  F  at  a  lower 
pressure  acting  against  this  larger  area  over- 
comes the  resistance  of  the  higher  pressure  steam 
in  chamber  C  and  forces  the  valve  into  the  posi- 
tion shown.  This  principle  is  the  same  as  in  the 
case  of  the  reducing  valve  previously  explained. 

These  areas  are  usually  so  proportioned  that 
when  the  pressure  in  the  chamber  F  is  30  per 
cent,  of  the  boiler  pressure,  it  overcomes  the 
resistance  of  the  steam  in  the  chamber  C  at  a 
pressure  of  40  per  cent,  of  boiler  pressure. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  when  the  locomo- 
tive is  working  compound  the  low-pressure  steam 
chests  receive  all  of  their  steam  from  the  exhaust 
from  the  high-pressure  cylinders  through  cham- 
bers F  and  C  and  the  receiver,  the  ports  B  hav- 
ing been  closed  by  the  outward  movement  of  the 
intercepting  valve  2.    At  full  stroke,  the  pressure 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


417 


on  the  low-pressure  pistons  would  be,  approxi- 
mately, 30  per  cent,  of  the  boiler  pressure ;  while, 
on  the  high-pressure  pistons,  would  be  exerted  the 


Fig.  6.     Intercepting  Valve  in  Compound  Position. 

Intercepting  Valve  2  Is  open.  Reducing  Valve  1  and  Emergency  Valve  6  are 
closed.  Live  steam  is  cut  oH  from  the  receiver  pipe  and  exhaust  steam  from 
the  high  pressure  cylinders  is  admitted. 


I 


pressure  which  the  live  steam  from  the  boiler  has, 
minus  the  30  per  cent,  in  the  receiver  which  acts 
on  their  exhaust  sides.     The  pull  on  the  cross 


418  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

heads  of  all  four  cylinders  is  practically  equal, 
as  the  products  of  the  several  piston  areas  multi- 
plied by  their  respective  pressures  are  equal  in 
each  case. 

Should  the  maximum  power  of  the  locomotive 
be  required  in  starting  or  in  ascending  a  heavy 
grade,  it  may  be  had  at  any  time  by  simply  turn- 
ing the  emergency  operating  valve  N  in  the  cab 
so  that  the  handle  points  to  the  rear.  The  inter- 
cepting valve  will  then  assume  the  position  shown 
in  Fig.  7. 

Opening  the  emergency  operating  valve  admits 
live  steam  into  the  chamber  G,  which  forces  the 
emergency  valve,  6,  open  against  the  resistance  of 
its  own  spring  plus  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in 
the  chamber  L  (which  is  receiver  pressure). 

On  the  opening  of  the  emergency  exhaust  valve, 
6,  the  steam  in  the  chamber  L  is  immediately  re- 
leased. This  unbalances  the  intercepting  valve, 
2,  with  the  result  that  the  reducing  valve,  1,  is 
moved  inward  or  opened  by  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  from  the  boiler  in  chamber  A  acting  against 
the  shoulder  E.  The  reducing  valve,  1,  carries  the 
intercepting  valve  2  inward  with  it,  closing  the 
latter,  the  two  valves  assuming  the  position  shown 
in  Fig.  7.  Communication  between  the  chamber 
C  and  the  chamber  F,  into  which  the  steam  from 
the  high-pressure  cylinders  exhausts,  is  thus  cut 
off;  while  live  steam  from  the  boiler,  at  a  pres- 
sure reduced  to  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  boiler 
pressure,  is  allowed  to  pass  through  the  ports  B 
into  the  chamber  C  and  thence  through  the  re- 
ceiver to  the  low-pressure  steam  chests. 


MALLEI  LOCOMOTIVES. 


419 


By  the  use  of  the  intermediate  eliamber  L  be- 
tween the  chamber  F  and  tlie  emergency  valve,  6, 
which    is    exhausted    the    instant    that    valve    is 


Fig.   7.    Ixtercepting  Valves  in  Simple  Position. 

Emergency  Valve  6  and  Reducing  Valve  1  are  open  and  In- 
terceptive  Valve  2   is  closed. 

The  exhaust  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders  is  released  to  the 
atmosphere,  the  high-pressure  cylinders  are  relieved  of  receiver 
pressure  and  live  steam  is  admitted  to  all  cylinders,  giving  20  per 
cent,   increase   in   tractive   power. 

opened,  the  intercepting  valve  2  is  closed  and  the 
reducing  valve  1  opened  before,  or  at  the  same 
moment,  that  the  receiver  is  actually  exhausted. 


I 


420  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

Consequently,  there  is  no  drop  of  pressure  in  the 
low-pressure  steam  chests  during  the  change 
from  compound  to  simple  or  prior  to  the  en- 
trance of  live  steam  into  the  low-pressure  steam 
chests. 

As  the  emergency  exhaust  valve,  6,  is  kept  open 
by  the  pressure  of  the  steam  admitted  to  the  outer 
side  of  the  piston  8  by  the  opening  of  the  emer- 
gency operating  valve  in  the  cab,  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders  passes 
through  the  chamber  F  into  the  chambers  L  and 
M,  and  so  into  the  high-pressure  exhaust  pipe 
and  to  the  atmosphere. 

Thus  when  the  intercepting  valve  is  in  position 
shown  in  Fig.  7,  that  is,  when  the  locomotive  is 
working  simple,  the  high-pressure  pistons  are  re- 
lieved of  the  back  pressure  amounting  to  30  per 
cent,  of  the  boiler  pressure,  which  acts  against 
them  when  the  locomotive  is  working  compound, 
with  the  intercepting  valve  in  Fig.  6.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  low-pressure  cylinders  are  receiving 
steam  direct  from  the  boiler  at  a  pressure  of  40 
per  cent,  of  that  which  it  has  in  the  boiler,  instead 
of  exhaust  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylin- 
ders at  a  pressure  of  only  30  per  cent,  of  boiler 
pressure,  as  when  the  locomotive  is  working  com- 
pound. This  explains  the  20  per  cent,  increase  in 
the  normal  maximum  power,  which,  as  already 
stated,  is  obtained  by  changing  the  locomotive 
into  simple.  The  increase  would  be  greater  were 
it  not  for  the  wire-drawing  of  the  steam  through 
the  restricted  area  of  the  ports  B,  which  are  in- 
tentionally reduced  for  operation  under  this  con- 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  421 

dition.  As  it  is,  the  actual  increase  in  power  at 
speeds  of  from  three  to  four  miles  per  hour  would 
not  be  greater  than  the  amount  given  above. 

The  reducing  valve,  1,  is  so  designed  that  at 
speeds  of  more  than  three  or  four  miles  an  hour 
no  increase  in  power  is  obtained  by  changing  the 
locomotive  into  simple.  This  is  done  in  order  that 
the  emergency  feature  will  not  be  misused,  with 
injurious  effect  on  the  machinery  and  the  sacri- 
fice of  economy  in  fue).  consumption. 

If  the  pressure  in  the  chamber  C  and  conse- 
quently in  the  receiver  pipe  and  the  low-pressure 
steam  chests  rises  to  more  than  40  per  cent,  of 
the  boiler  pressure  when  the  engine  is  working 
simple,  the  reducing  valve,  1,  will  be  forced  out- 
ward to  the  jDOsition  it  has  in  Fig.  5;  that  is, 
closing  the  ports  B  and  shutting  oif  the  live  steam 
from  the  chamber  C.  The  other  parts  of  the 
valve,  however,  will  remain  in  the  same  position 
as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  reducing  valve  1  auto- 
matically closes  under  the  conditions  above  stated. 

Upon  the  movement  of  the  low-pressure  pis- 
tons, the  steam  pressure  in  the  chamber  C  will 
be  reduced;  and  the  boiler  pressure  acting  upon 
the  small  shoulder  E  would  again  force  the  re- 
ducing valve  1  inward  to  its  position  in  Fig.  7, 
opening  the  ports  B.  Thus  the  pressure  in  the 
chamber  C  and  low-pressure  steam  chests  would 
be  again  raised  to  the  required  40  per  cent,  of 
the  boiler  pressure.  This  alternate  opening  and 
closing  of  the  reducing  valve  1  will  continue  as 
long  as  the  displacement  of  the  low-pressure  pis- 
tons does  not  exceed  the  supply  of  steam  that 


422  EXGINEEES'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

comes  through  the  ports  B.  When  this  condition 
occurs,  the  reducing  valve  1  will  remain  open. 

These  facts  explain  why,  if  the  locomotive 
starts  to  slip  when  it  is  changed  into  simple,  it 
automatically  ceases  without  necessitating  clos- 
ing the  throttle;  since,  with  the  rapid  movement 
of  the  low-pressure  pistons,  the  power  of  those 
engines  is  reduced;  and,  with  the  increased  ex- 
haust from  the  high-pressure  engines  passing 
through  the  comparatively  restricted  opening  of 
the  emergency  valve  6,  the  back  jiressure  on  the 
high-pressure  pistons  is  increased,  reducing  the 
effective  power  in  those  cylinders. 

It  is  very  important  for  the  engineer  to  remem- 
ber that,  the  locomotive  having  been  changed  into 
simple  working  by  opening  the  emergency  oper- 
ating valve  N  in  the  cab,  it  is  necessary  to  close 
this  valve  (that  is,  turn  it  so  that  the  handle 
points  fonvard),  in  order  to  change  the  locomo- 
tive back  to  compound  or  normal  working.  With 
the  emergency  operating  valve  closed,  the  steam 
will  be  exhausted  from  the  chamber  G  in  front 
of  the  piston  8.  The  tension  of  the  spring,  as- 
sisted by  the  steam  pressure  upon  the  inner  end 
of  the  emergency  exhaust  valve  6,  will  then  return 
that  valve  to  its  seat,  thus  preventing  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinders  escaping 
to  the  stack.  A  few  exhausts  from  the  high-pres- 
sure cylinders  will,  then,  soon  raise  the  pressure 
in  the  chamber  F  and  force  the  intercepting  valve 
2,  and  with  it  the  reducing  valve  1,  to  assume  the 
compound  position,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

If,  upon  starting  the  locomotive,  it  is  desired  to 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  423 

prevent  the  valves  from  changing  automatically 
to  the  compound  position,  the  emergency  valve  6 
may  be  opened  in  advance  by  opening  the  emer- 
gency operating  valve  N,  turning  the  handle  to 
the  rear.  This,  as  previously  explained,  will  pre- 
vent the  pressure  in  the  chamber  F  from  rising 
sufficiently  to  force  the  intercepting  valve  2  open. 

In  changing  from  compound  to  simple  when 
running,  the  sudden  unbalancing  of  the  intercept- 
ing valve  2,  tends  to  close  this  valve  rapidly,  with 
the  result  that  it  would  slam,  were  it  not  for  the 
dash-pot,  which  prevents  this.  The  dash-pot  pis- 
ton 3  at  the  outer  end  of  the  intercepting  valve 
stem  works  in  the  cylinder  H  formed  in  the  outer 
end  of  the  intercepting  valve  chamber  head  4. 
When  the  intercepting  valve  is  forced  inward 
under  full  pressure,  its  too  rapid  motion  is  pre- 
vented by  the  slow  escape  of  the  air  from  under 
the  piston  3  through  the  small  port  J.  This  is 
practically  the  only  function  of  the  dash-pot.  The 
port  K,  extending  through  the  center  of  the  inter- 
cepting valve  stem  half  way  to  the  inner  end,  per- 
mits the  escape  of  any  steam  that  may  leak  past 
the  small  rings  on  the  intercepting  valve  stem  and 
reducing  valve  1. 

All  of  the  ports  of  the  intercepting  valve  have 
important  duties  to  perform,  and  their  location 
and  sizes  must  not  be  changed. 

From  the  above  description  of  the  intercept- 
ing valve,  it  will  be  seen  that  to  start  a  train 
with  an  articulated  compound  it  is  usually  only 
necessary  to  open  the  throttle  in  the  ordinary  way 
with  the  reverse  lever  in  the  position  required  for 


424  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

the  weight  of  the  train  or,  ordinarily,  in  the  ex- 
treme notch;  and  with  the  cylinder  cocks  open. 
The  intercepting  valve  will  automatically  assume 
the  position  shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  the  locomotive 
will  work  simple  until  the  j^ressure  in  the  receiver 
has  raised  sufficiently  to  force  the  intercepting 
valve  2  into  position  shown  in  Fig.  6,  or  compound 
position. 

If  the  locomotive  fails  to  move  the  train  when 
started  in  this  way,  or  is  about  to  stall  on  a  steep 
grade,  it  should  be  changed  into  simple  working 
by  turning  the  handle  of  the  emergency  operating 
valve  in  the  cab,  so  that  it  points  to  the  rear, 
which  causes  the  intercepting  valve  to  assume 
position  shown  in  Fig.  7. 

There  is  no  increased  tendency  for  the  locomo- 
tive to  slip  when  working  simple ;  and,  moreover, 
when  it  does  slip,  the  slipping  is  automatically 
arrested  after  only  a  few  inches  of  movement  of 
the  piston.  If,  however,  the  locomotive  starts  to 
slip,  it  is  advisable  to  use  sand,  should  the  rail 
conditons  be  at  all  unfavorable. 

The  engineer  can  easily  tell  whether  the  locomo- 
tive is  working  simple  or  compound  either  by  the 
sound  of  the  exhaust  or  by  the  position  of  the 
emergency  operating  valve  in  the  cab.  When 
working  simple  there  are  eight  exhausts  to  each 
revolution  of  the  wheels,  and  only  four  when 
working  compound.  In  the  former  case  the  ex- 
haust has  more  the  sound  of  a  continuous  blow, 
the  separate  exhausts  being  less  distinct.  When 
working  compound,  the  handle  of  the  emergency 


I 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  425 

operating  valve,  as  stated,  points  forward,  and  to 
the  rear  when  working  simple. 

If  the  low-pressure  engine  fails  to  start  when 
the  throttle  is  open,  the  trouble  may  lie  in  the 
reducing  valve  1  having  stuck  in  the  closed  posi- 
tion, due  to  the  fact  that  it  had  not  been  properly 
lubricated  or  some  foreign  matter  had  worked 
into  the  bore  of  the  valve.  In  such  an  event  the 
admission  ports  B,  Fig.  4,  would  be  closed  and  no 
steam  could  get  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 

Such  a  difficulty  can  ordinarily  be  remedied  by 
giving  the  reducing  valve  a  little  more  feed  of 
oil  for  a  few  minutes ;  or,  if  necessary,  the  cover 
of  the  dash-pot  H  may  be  removed  and  with  a 
piece  of  bent  14-inch  wire  the  reducing  valve  1 
may  be  moved  in  and  out  a  few  times,  after  which 
it  will  probably  clear  itself  when  the  throttle  is 
open. 

The  intercepting  valve  should  be  given  a  liberal 
feed  of  oil  for  a  minute  before  starting  and  occa- 
sionally during  long  runs  when  the  throttle  is 
not  shut  off  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
Outside  of  this,  one  drop  of  oil  every  four  or 
five  minutes  is  ordinarily  ample  when  running. 

POWER  EEVEESING  GEAR. 

Because  of  the  size  and  weight  of  the  parts  of 
the  valve  motion  of  this  articulated  compound 
locomotive,  a  power  reversing  gear  is  generally 
applied  to  operate  the  reverse  lever.  This  is  an 
engine  consisting  of  two  cylinders,  one  an  air 
cylinder  and  the  other  filled  with  oil.     The  two 


\ 


426  EXGINEEES'  AND  FIEEMEN'S  MANUAL.      ' 

cylinders  are  set  one  ahead  of  the  other,  and  are 
usually  bolted  to  the  underside  of  the  mudring  or 
some  other  convenient  location. 

Fi^.  8  shows  the  arrangement  and  construction 
of  tliis  mechanism.  In  this  case  the  forward  one 
is  the  air  cylinder  and  the  rear  the  oil  cylinder, 
although  this  arrangement  is  usually  reversed  and 
can  be  made  whichever  the  circumstances  require. 
In  any  arrangement  both  pistons  are  mounted  on 
a  common  piston  rod  which  is  connected  to  either 
the  main  reverse  lever,  or,  as  in  the  illustration,  to 
an  extension  of  the  reverse  shaft  arm. 

Between  the  two  cylinders  are  the  packing  boxes 
for  the  common  piston  rod,  and  there  is  also  a 
stuffing  box  at  the  air  end  of  the  cylinder  for  the 
rod  connecting  the  piston  with  the  reverse  lever 
or  shaft,  as  the  case  may  be.  Both  pistons  are 
packed  with  leather  packing,  that  in  the  air  cylin- 
der being  held  out  by  spring  rings.  The  valves 
of  both  cylinders  are  conical,  that  for  the  air  cyl- 
inders having  four  openings  in  addition  to  the 
exhaust  cavity,  while  the  oil  cylinder  valve  has 
two  crossed  passages. 

The  valves  of  the  air  and  oil  cylinders  are 
operated  by  an  auxiliary  reverse  lever  E  to  which 
they  are  connected  by  a  rod.  This  lever  is  pivoted 
on  the  main  lever  Q  at  the  point  AY.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  a  latch  with  teeth  that  fit  in  a  quad- 
rant in  the  same  manner  as  the  main  lever.  This 
latch  is  so  interlocked  with  the  latch  of  the  main 
reverse  lever  Q  that  raising  the  former  raises  the 
latter,  which  cannot  drop  again  unless  the  main 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  427 

reverse  lever  Q  is  in  its  normal  position  relative 
to  the  auxiliary  lever  R. 

The  levers  are  so  designed  that  when  the  two 
latches  are  lifted  the  auxiliary  reverse  lever  R 
is  allowed  sufficient  movement  about  its  pivot 
point  W  (limited  by  lugs  on  the  main  reverse 
lever  latch)  to  give  a  full  opening  of  the  valves 
of  the  air  and  oil  cylinders. 

When  a  change  in  cut-off  is  desired  the  latch 
of  the  auxiliary  lever  R  is  released,  which  also 
unlatches  the  main  reverse  lever  Q.  If  the  main 
reverse  lever  Q  is  to  be  thrown  ahead,  the  auxil- 
iary lever  is  moved  forward  about  its  pivot  point 
W,  and  back,  if  it  is  de«ired  to  move  the  main 
lever  in  that  direction.  The  movement  of  the 
auxiliary  lever  R,  forward  or  back,  swings  its 
lower  end  Y  which  operates  t^^e  valves  of  the 
air  and  oil  cylinders;  and  the  valve  motion  is 
moved  in  the  desired  direction. 

For  instance,  when  the  auxiliary  lever  is  pushed 
forward,  its  lower  end  Y  is  drawn  back.  This 
turns  the  valve  of  the  air  cylinder  so  that  the  air 
is  admitted  through  the  air  inlet  13  to  the  front 
of  the  piston,  and  the  exhaust  port- 14  establishes 
communication  between  the  rear  end  of  the  air 
cylinder  and  the  exhaust  to  the  atmosphere.  At 
the  same  time  the  crossed  passages  of  the  oil 
cylinder  valve  are  so  turned  as  to  allow  the  oil  in 
the  cylinder  to  flow  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
The  air  and  oil  pistons  thus  move  back  and  the 
valve  gear  is  moved  forward.  The  slow  flow  of 
the  oil  in  the  oil  cylinder  prevents  the  too  rapid 
movement  of  the  reverse  lever  Q. 


428  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIEEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

The  auxiliary  lever  R,  being  pivoted  on  the 
main  reverse  lever  Q,  moves  with  the  latter,  and 
when  the  gear  is  to  be  changed  must  be  kept  in 
motion  until  the  desired  notch  in  the  quadrant 
is  reached  and  then  latched.  By  stopping  the  move- 
ment of  the  auxiliary  lever,  the  gear  automatic- 
ally moves  the  main  reverse  lever  up  to  its  normal 
position  relative  to  the  former,  when  it  also 
latches,  as  already  stated.  This  also  automatic- 
ally closes  the  valves  of  both  the  air  and  oil  cylin- 
ders, giving  both  an  oil  and  a  positive  lock  to  the 
gear. 

Except  in  case  of  lack  of  air  jtsessure  or  any 
accident  to  the  power  reversing  gear,'  the  valve 
motion  is  handled  entirely  by  the  auxiliary  re- 
verse lever  R.  For  this  reason  the  practice  is  to 
cut  off  that  portion  of  the  main  reverse  lever  Q 
which  ordinarily  projects  above  the  deck  of  the 
cab,  thus  leaving  more  room  for  the  engineer.  A 
separate  handle  is  provided  for  the  main  reverse 
lever,  which  may  be  easily  applied  in  case  of  acci- 
dent to  the  power  reversing  gear. 

It  is,  of  course,  important  that  the  air  and  oil 
valves  be  properly  set  so  that  the  valve  openings 
and  cylinder  ports  match  up  properly  in  the  dif- 
ferent positions.  For  example,  a  quarter  of  a 
turn  of  the  oil  valve  one  way  or  the  other  would 
result  in  the  valve  being  blanked  instead  of  open 
when  the  auxiliary  lever  R  was  moved  about  its 
pivot  point.  The  gear  could  not,  then,  be  oper- 
ated, as  the  oil  could  not  circulate  from  one  end 
of  the  oil  cylinder  to  the  other.  If,  therefore, 
the  power  reversing  gear  fails  to  operate  when 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


429 


430  ENGINE  ESS'  ATiD  FlhEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

the  valves  are  supposedly  opened  and  nothing 
has  happened  to  the  air  supply,  first  examine  the 
valves  to  see  that  they  are  in  their  proper 
position. 

The  function  of  the  oil  cylinder  is  to  prevent 
the  too  rapid  movement  of  the  reversing  gear 
when  a  change  of  cut-off  is  made.  It  is  impera- 
tive, therefore,  that  this  cylinder  be  always  kept 
full  of  oil.  The  frequency  with  which  it  should 
be  filled  depends  on  the  condition  of  its  piston 
and  piston  rod  packing  and  these  should,  there- 
fore, be  kept  in  good  condition.  If  the  revers- 
ing gear  ojDerates  too  rapidly,  this  indicates  that 
there  is  a  lack  of  oil  in  the  oil  cylinder  and  this 
should  be  refilled  and  the  leakages  stopped. 

In  case  of  any  repairs  to  the  power  reversing 
gear,  especial  attention  should  be  given  to  see 
that  it  is  properly  adjusted  when  set  up  so  that 
when  the  gear  is  operated  the  main  reverse  lever 
will  automatically  be  moved  to  its  normal  posi- 
tion relative  to  the  auxiliary  lever  and  properly 
latch.  If  the  gear  is  not  properly  adjusted,  the 
latch  of  the  main  reverse  lever  will  not  engage 
properly  with  the  teeth  of  the  quadrant.  In  con- 
sequence the  latch  of  the  auxiliary  lever  will  have 
to  hold  the  gear  with  the  result  that  it  will  be 
quickly  worn. 

BY-PASS  VALVES. 

Another  feature  which  plays  a  most  impor- 
tant part  in  the  successful  operation  of  the  articu- 
lated  compound   locomotive,    and    so    should   be 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


431 


clearly  understood  by  the  engineer,  is  the  by-pass 
valves. 

The  purpose  of  these  valves  is  to  prevent  the 
injurious  effects  which  would  otherwise  result 
from  the  pumping  action  of  the  large  low  pres- 
sure pistons  when  the  locomotive  is  drifting. 

These  valves  are  so  designed  that  they  auto- 
matically establish  communication  between  the 
two  ends  of  the  cylinder,  when  the  engine  is  run- 
ning with  the  throttle  closed,  thus  performing  sev- 
eral important  functions. 


POBTS/S" 


PORTS^S" 


Fig.  9.     By-pass  Valves. 


First,  they  prevent  alternating  vacuum  and 
compression  in  the  cylinders  when  the  locomotive 
is  drifting,  thus  insuring  the  free  movement  of 
the  pistons. 

Second,  by  permitting  the  circulation  of  the 


432  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

free  air  drawn  into  the  cylinders  through  the  vac- 
uum-relief valves,  they  prevent  this  air  from  be- 
ing overheated  by  the  churning  of  the  pistons  and 
thus  destroying  the  lubrication,  when  the  locomo- 
tive is  drifting  down  a  long  hill. 

Third,  by  destroying  the  vacuum  which,  with- 
out them,  would  be  formed  by  the  large  piston, 
they  prevent  the  smoke  and  gases  from  the  smoke 
box  being  sucked  into  the  cylinder. 

Fourth,  they  prevent  excessive  fanning  of  the 
fire  from  the  pumping  action  of  the  large  pistons 
when  drifting 

These  valves  are  locaiea  in  chambers  cast  in 
the  outside  of  each  low  pressure  cylinder.  Their 
construction  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  There  are  two 
valves  to  each  cylinder.  The  lower  view  in  the 
illustration  shows  the  two  valves  U  with  the  heads 
T  of  the  chambers  in  which  they  are  located; 
while  the  upper  view  shows  the  valves  alone  with- 
out the  valve  chamber  heads. 

Fig.  10  illustrates  the  arrangement  or  the  valves 
when  assembled  in  their  chamber  and  their  rela- 
tion to  the  steam  ports  in  the  cylinders. 

In  position  A  of  this  latter  figure,  the  valves 
U  are  in  the  position  they  assume  when  the  throt- 
tle is  open.  In  this  position  the  steam  passing 
from  the  steam  chest  ports  through  the  small 
ports  S  in  the  head  T  of  the  valve  chamber,  as 
indicated  by  the  arrows,  acts  against  the  outer 
ends  of  the  valves  U  and  keeps  them  against  their 
seats,  cutting  off  communication  between  the  ad- 
mission ports  of  the  cylinders. 

Position  B  of  Fig.  10  is  the  one  the  by-pass 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES 


433 


valves  U  automatically  takes  when  the  throttle  is 
closed.  In  that  event  the  atmospheric  pressure 
admitted  through  the  small  air  vent  in  the  valve 
chamber  forces  the  valves  U  open,  closing  the 
steam  chest  ports  and  establishing  communica- 
tion between  the  admission  ports  at  either  end  of 
the  cylinders.  This  permits  circulation  from  one 
end  of  the  cylinder  to  the  other  when  the  locomo- 


w 

T-4 


A 

Fig.  10.      By-pass  Valves  in  Open  and  Closed  Position. 


tive  is  drifting,  accomplishing  the  necessary  re- 
■      suits  enumerated. 

It  is  strongly  recommended,  therefore,  that  in 
drifting  the  reverse  lever  be  kept  at  %-stroke  or 


434  ENGINEEBS*  AND  FIBEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

more,  since  when  operated  in  this  way  the  loco- 
motive will  drift  freely. 

As  the  by-pass  valves  perform  such  important 
duties,  it  is  essential  that  they  be  properly  cared 
for  and  kept  in  good  condition,  to  prevent  them 
from  sticking.  The  engineer  can  tell  at  once  if 
the  by-pass  valves  are  stuck  open,  as,  in  that  case, 
steam  will  blow  from  the  small  pipe  projecting 
from  under  the  jacket  midway  between  the  ends 
of  the  cylinder.  This  pipe  connects  to  the  air 
vent  in  the  center  of  the  chamber  containing  the 
valves. 

From  the  above  description  it  will  be  seen  that 
if  the  by-pass  valves  stick  open  it  will  cause  a 
severe  blow.  "When  the  locomotive  is  first  put 
into  service  the  by-pass  valves  should  be  taken 
out  and  cleaned  quite  frequently  to  keep  them  free 
of  core  sand  which  will  undoubtedly  work  in. 
After  this  has  been  done  a  few  times  they  require 
only  ordinary  attention. 

If  the  low  pressure  engines  are  heard  to  thump 
as  if  a  piston,  crosshead  or  box  were  loose  and 
the  locomotive  does  not  drift  freely,  the  trouble 
probably  lies  in  the  by-pass  valves  being  stuck 
closed  by  being  gummed,  and  these  should  be 
taken  out  and  cleaned  at  the  first  opportunity. 

Sticking  of  the  by-pass  valves  may  be  caused 
by  smoke  box  gases  being  sucked  into  the  cylin- 
ders by  the  pistons  when  the  locomotive  is  drift- 
ing with  the  reverse  lever  ''hooked  up."  These 
gases  would  be  sent  circulating  through  the  by- 
pass valves  which  are  oily  from  the  steam,  and 
the  soot  may  stick  to  them  and  form  a  gum.    This 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  435 

gum  hardens  gradually  and  the  valves  ultimately 
work  so  hard  that  the  comparatively  light  suc- 
tion in  the  steam  chest  is  not  strong  enough  to 
open  them.  On  this  account  periodical  cleaning 
of  these  valves  should  be  made. 

The  possibility  of  smoke  and  gases  being  sucked 
into  the  cylinders  will  be  minimized,  if  the  re- 
verse lever  is  kept  at  %-stroke  or  more  when  the 
locomotive  is  drifting. 

VACUUM  AND  RELIEF  VALVES. 

In  the  high  pressure  steam  chests  or  some  other 
convenient  place  which  is  in  communication  with 
the  steam  chests,  are  located  vacuum  valves.  The 
function  of  these  valves  is  to  admit  free  air  into 
the  steam  chests  when  the  locomotive  is  drift- 
ing so  as  to  avoid  a  vacuum  and  give  a  moderate 
flow  of  air  through  the  cylinders. 

The  low  pressure  cylinders  are  equipped  with 
combined  vacuum  and  relief  valves  which  in  ad- 
dition to  having  functions  similar  to  the  vacuum 
valves  of  the  high  pressure  cylinders  also  regu- 
late the  steam  pressure  in  the  low  pressure  steam 
chests.  These  relief  valves  are  set  at  45  per  cent 
of  the  boiler  pressure. 

As  these  valves  relieve  any  excessive  pressure 
in  the  low  pressure  cylinders,  they  should  be  test- 
ed occasionally  to  see  that  they  are  correctly  set. 

From  the  previous  description  of  the  intercept- 
ing valve  it  will  be  seen  that  when  the  locomotive 
is  working  compound  the  packing  rings  of  the 
high  pressure  valves  and  pistons  alone  separate 


436  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL 

the  boiler  pressure  from  the  pressure  in  the  re- 
ceiver and  low  pressure  cylinders.  Consequently 
if  there  was  a  blow  in  these  packing  rings,  the 
pressure  in  the  receiver  would  be  increased,  caus- 
ing the  relief  valves  in  the  low  pressure  steam 
chests  to  blow  off.  Therefore,  if  these  valves  rise 
from  their  seats  fiequently  when  the  locomotive 
is  working  compound,  it  might  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  was  a  blow  in  either  the  valves  or  the 
pistons  of  the  high  pressure  cylinders,  and  these 
should  be  tested. 

To  test  for  blows  simply  throw  the  emergency 
operating  valve  in  the  cab  to  the  simple  position, 
namely,  with  the  handle  pointing  to  the  rear. 
Spot  the  locomotive  and  test  the  same  as  a  simple 
locomotive. 

FLEXIBLE  JOINTS. 

Another  feature  peculiar  to  the  articulated  com- 
pound locomotive  is  the  flexible  ball  and  slip  joint 
steam  i^ipe  connections. 

In  this  articulated  compound  locomotive  there 
is  a  ball  joint  connection  between  the  receiver 
pipe  and  the  high  pressure  cylinders,  a  slip  joint 
connection  between  the  receiver  pipe  and  the  Y- 
pipe  by  which  the  steam  is  carried  to  the  steam 
passages  of  the  low  pressure  cylinders,  a  ball 
joint  connection  between  the  exhaust  pipe  flexible 
connection  and  the  low  pressure  cylinders  and 
also  between  the  former  and  the  exhaust  pipe  in 
the  smoke  box.  This  exhaust  pipe  flexible  con- 
nection is  likewise  provided  with  a  slip  joint  to 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  437 

allow  for  the  variations  in  its  length  when  the  en- 
gine rounds  a  curve.  The  construction  of  these 
flexible  connections  is  shown  in  Fig.  11. 

As  will  be  noticed,  the  ball  joints  consist  of  a 
ball-bearing,  gland,  stuffing  box  and.  packing, 
while  in  the  slip  joints  the  construction  is  very 
much  the  same,  without  the  ball-bearing. 

The  i^acking  in  both  classes  of  joints  consists 
of  a  fiber  material.  The  free  nominal  size  of  the 
packing  rings  is  five-eighth  inch  square  in  section 
and  they  are  hammered  and  worked  down  to  one- 
half  inch  square  before  being  applied,  which 
makes  them  soft  and  pliable. 

In  the  case  of  the  receiver  pipe  joint  at  the 
high  pressure  cylinders,  a  brass  ring  of  elongated 
diamond  section  is  inserted  in  the  center  of  the 
packing.  As  this  ring  is  just  the  width  of  the 
packing  space  it  seals  all  the  joints  in  the  pack- 
ing rings  proper  and  forces  them  tightly  against 
the  inside  of  the  box  and  against  the  ball. 

In  repacking  the  joint  this  brass  ring  should 
be  removed,  all  the  packing  rings  inspected,  new 
rings  put  in  where  necessary  and  the  ring  put 
back  in  its  proper  place.  In  every  case  the  orig- 
inal arrangement  of  joint  packing  should  be  pre- 
served. 

The  diagram  in  Fig.  11  shows  the  method  of 
arranging  the  rings.  These  must  be  cut  to  the 
correct  lengths  and  the  two  ends  in  every  case 
meet  perfectly  when  in  place.  They  are  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  seams  in  any  two  adjacent  rings 
are  at  least  a  quarter  of  a  circle  or  90  degrees 
apart,  and  all  the  seams  in  the  entire  set  are  at 


438 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIEEMEN'S  MANUAL. 


least  one-eighth  of  a  circle  or  45  degrees  from 
each  other.  The  reference  numbers  on  the  dia- 
gram correspond  to  those  on  the  packing 
drawings. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  when  the  packing  is 


?.  <   ^ofiS  Icr  remoif'ng  '/W^,  for  repack ina 
y^..    c      3  SKfixire  Fibre  Packing 


L.  P.  £xhausf  Pipe  Ba//  Jo/nA 
Fig.  11.     Flexible  Joints. 


renewed  that  care  should  be  taken  to  arrange 
them  in  the  manner  shown,  since  if  so  arranged 
trouble  from  leaky  joints  will  be  avoided. 

It  is  also  essential  that  in  renewing  packing 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


439 


the  same  kind  of  packing  should  be  used  as  that 
originally  applied. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  in  the  articulated  com- 
pound locomotive  a  long  receiver  pipe  is  generally 
employed  and  the  ball  joint  is  located  in  the  ver- 
tical center  of  the  pivot  connection  between  the 


Square  Hbre  Packing 


I 


^mm    L 


IBIBi 


y 


Receiver  Pipe  Slip  Join  A 


Diagram  of  ^rrangemenf  of  Packing  Rings. 
Fig.  11.    Flexible  Joints. 

front  and  rear  engines,  there  is  very  little  move- 
ment in  the  ball  joint  and  there  is  practically  no 
tendency  for  this  joint  to  leak. 

In  case  there  is  any  leakage  it  is  usually  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  gland  is  not  screwed  in  tight 


440  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIIiEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

enough,  and  can  be  easily  stopped  by  a  turn  or 
two  on  the  gland  bolts. 

ADJUSTMENT  OF  THE  ALIGNMENT  OF  THE  FRONT 
ENGINE  FEAMES. 

In  locomotives  of  the  articulated  compound 
type  vertical  hanger  or  **trim"  bolts  X,  Fig.  12, 
connect  the  upper  rails  of  the  rear  frames  with 
the  lower  rails  of  the  front  frames.  These  bolts 
have  ball  and  socket  bearings  in  the  frame  rails 
and  sufficient  play  is  allowed  in  the  bolt  holes  to 
provide  for  the  lateral  movement  of  the  front 
frames  when  the  locomotive  is  passing  through 
a  curve.  They  serve  to  adjust  the  weights  on 
the  front  and  rear  engines  so-  that  each  bears  its 
proportionate  amount  of  the  total  load,  and  to 
keep  the  front  frames  in  proper  alignment.  Or- 
dinarily, therefore,  the  alignment  of  the  engine 
may  be  easily  adjusted  if  necessary  by  means 
of  them  without  any  other  change  in  the  spring 
rigging. 

In  designs  of  articulated  compound  locomotives 
having  no  front  truck,  where  two  sliding  boiler 
bearings  are  employed,  the  front  sliding  bearing 
does  not  normally  carry  any  load,  but  is  merely 
an  emergency  stop  in  case  of  derailment  or  any 
unusual  change  in  the  alignment  between  the  two 
frames.  This  bearing  is  so  designed  that  when 
the  front  and  rear  frames  are  in  proper  alignment 
there  is  a  clearance  (ordinarily  i/4  inch)  between 
the  upper  and  lower  bearing  and  an  equal  amount 
between  the  upper  bearing  and  the  safety  straps 
or  clips,  as  indicated  at  Z  andZ',  Fig.  12. 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


441 


142  EXGINEEES'  AND  FIBEMEN'S  MANUAL. 

An  exception  to  the  above  rule  should  be  noted 
in  the  case  of  class  0880  engines  designed  for 
over  16-degree  curvature.  In  such  designs  the 
front  bearing  may  sometimes  be  used  for  sup- 
porting a  small  part  of  the  weight  on  the  front 
engine,  though  a  considerably  less  amount  than 
when  a  front  truck  is  used. 

About  %-inch  total  play  is  also  always  allowed 
between  the  rear  draw  casting  (or  jaw)  and  the 
front  draw  casting  (or  hinge)  of  the  articulated 
connection.  The  hinge  casting  should  not  touch 
either  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  jaw. 

In  the  case  of  this  articulated  compound  locomo- 
tive of  one  of  the  designs  covered  in  the  above 
rule,  if  the  hinge  casting  of  the  articulated  joint 
bears  on  the  top  of  the  jaw  and  the  safety  strap, 
or  clips,  of  the  front  sliding  boiler  support  bears 
close  against  the  ujDper  casting  of  this  support, 
adjustment  may  be  made  by  the  "trim"  bolts, 
which  should  be  tightened  up  until  the  vertical 
play  is  approximately  divided  in  each  case. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  bearing  surfaces  of 
the  upper  and  lower  castings  of  the  front  sliding 
support  touch  and  the  articulated  hinge  bears  on 
the  bottom  of  its  jaw,  adjustment  should  be  made 
by  loosening  the  *'trim"  bolts. 

Should  the  upper  and  lower  bearings  of  the 
front  boiler  support  touch,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  articulated  hinge  bears  on  its  top  surface 
against  the  jaw,  a  liner  plate  of  a  thickness  of 
about  one-half  the  total  play  should  be  inserted 
between  the  sliding  block  of  the  rear  boiler  sup- 
port and  its  saddle.    This  should  give  a  satisfac- 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  443 

tory  adjustment.  To  insert  this  liner,  the  rear 
bearing  can  be  raised  the  required  amount  by 
tightening  up  the  vertical  suspension  or  *'trim" 
bolts  X,  while  the  plate  is  fitted  in,  after  which 
the  nuts  on  the  bolts  should  be  eased  off  till  the 
correct  tension  is  secured  and  the  proper  adjust- 
ment is  sure  to  be  obtained. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  safety  straps,  or  clips, 
bear  on  the  upper  casting  of  the  front  sliding 
boiler  support  and  the  articulated  hinge  bears  on 
its  bottom  surface  against  its  jaw,  the  sliding 
block  of  the  rear  sliding  boiler  support  should  be 
planed  oft'  an  amount  equal  to  one-half  the  total 
play. 

When  front  trucks  are  used  or  where  both  bear- 
ings of  the  front  engine  support  weight,  the 
*'trim"  bolts  are  provided  with  a  spring  undei 
the  nut  at  one  end  in  order  to  relieve  the  excessive 
load,  which  is  liable  to  be  concentrated  on  the 
rear  bearing  because  of  inequalities  in  the  level 
of  the  track,  or  similar  conditions. 

BREAKDOWNS. 

In  case  of  any  breakdown  in  which  one  or  more 
of  the  cylinders  can  be  disconnected  and  the  loco- 
motive run  in  with  the  remaining  cylinders  active, 
simply  throw  the  emergency  operating  valve  N 
in  the  cab  into  the  simple  position  and  proceed 
as  with  a  simple  locomotive,  namely,  disconnect 
and  block  the  disabled  cylinder  or  cylinders.  This 
is  the  only  rule  to  follow  and  the  only  one  to  be 


444  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

remembered,  and   covers   all   cases   of  accidents 
which  do  not  entirely  disable  the  locomotive. 

OPERATING  EITLES. 

Always  open  the  cylinder  cocks  in  starting. 

Usually  the  locomotive  will  start  the  train  when 
the  throttle  is  opened  in  the  ordinary  way  with 
the  reverse  lever  in  the  position  required  for  the 
weight  of  the  train  or  ordinarily  in  the  extreme 
notch.  If  the  locomotive  fails  to  start  the  train 
when  operated  in  this  way,  change  it  into  simple 
working  by  turning  the  handle  of  the  emergency 
operating  valve  in  the  cab  so  that  it  points  to  the 
rean  This  same  course  should  be  followed  if  the 
engine  is  about  to  stall  on  a  heavy  grade.  If 
the  speed  is  over  three  or  four  miles  an  hour,  no 
increase  in  power  will  be  obtained  by  changing 
the  locomotive  into  simple  working. 

"Wlien  drifting,  the  reverse  lever  should  be  kept 
at  •'^-stroke  or  more.  As  before  stated,  if  this  is 
done,  the  locomotive  will  drift  freely. 

The  oil  cylinder  of  the  power  reversing  gear 
should  always  be  kept  full  of  oil.  The  piston  and 
piston  rod  packing  of  the  oil  cylinder  should  be 
kept  in  good  condition  so  as  to  prevent  leakage. 
If  the  reversing  gear  operates  too  rapidly  it  indi- 
cates that  there  is  not  sufficient  oil  in  the  oil  cyl- 
inder and  this  should  be  refilled  and  the  leakages 
stopped. 

If  the  reversing  gear  is  not  adjusted  properly 
so  that  the  latch  of  the  main  reverse  lever  does 
not  engage  with  the  teeth  of  the  quadrant,  the 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  445 

trouble  should  be  remedied  as  soon  as  possible. 
If  not  properly  adjusted,  the  locking  of  the  re- 
verse gear  will  be  put  almost  entirely  on  the  latch 
of  the  auxiliary  lever,  which  is  not  designed  for 
such  duty  and  would,  therefore,  quickly  wear. 

The  by-pass  valves  should  be  taken  out  and 
cleaned  periodically  to  prevent  them  from  being 
gummed  and  sticking.  When  the  locomotive  is 
first  put  into  service,  these  valves  should  be 
cleaned  quite  frequently  for  a  few  times  so  as  to 
keep  them  free  from  the  core  sand  which  is  sure 
to  work  into  them.  Afterwards  they  will  require 
only  ordinary  attention  to  work  properly.  When 
these  valves  are  properly  performing  their  func- 
tions, the  locomotive  will  drift  freely.  If  they 
stick  open  it  will  cause  a  severe  blow,  while  if 
stuck  in  the  closed  position,  it  will  cause  a  pound- 
ing in  the  low  pressure  engines. 

The  relief  valves  in  the  low  pressure  steam 
chests  should  be  tested  occasionally  to  see  that 
they  are  correctly  set  at  45  per  cent  of  the  boiler 
pressure,  as  these  valves  relieve  any  excessive 
pressure  in  the  steam  chests. 

Repaies  to  Flexible  Joints. — In  renewing  the 
packing  of  the  flexible  joints  the  same  kind  of 
packing  should  be  used  as  that  originally  applied. 
Also  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  packing  the  same  as  that  shown  in 
the  diagram  in  Fig.  11. 

The  brass  ring  of  the  receiver  pipe  joint  at  the 
high  pressure  cylinder  may  be  removed  in  order 
to  insert  new  packing,  but  the  original  arrange- 


446  ENGINEEFS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

meiit  of  the  joint  packing  should  always  be  pre- 
served. 

Lubrication. — Give  the  intercepting  valve  a  lib- 
eral feed  of  oil  for  a  minute  before  starting  and 
occasionally  during  long  runs,  when  the  throttle 
is  not  shut  off  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
Except  for  this,  one  drop  of  oil  to  the  intercepting 
valve  every  four  or  five  minutes  is  ample  when 
running. 

Besides  the  intercepting  valve,  the  other  parts 
of  the  articulated  compound  locomotive  which 
should  be  oiled,  which  are  not  found  on  the  ordi- 
nary locomotive  are : 

Sliding  boiler  bearings  on  the  front  engine. 

The  ball  joint  in  front  of  the  high  pressure  cyl- 
inder {before  starting  on  a  trip). 

The  upper  or  rear  ball  joint  of  the  exhaust  pipe 
{before  starting  on  a  trip). 

The  lower  or  front  ball  joint  of  the  exhaust  pipe 
{before  starting  on  a  trip). 

The  bolt  connecting  the  two  engines. 

The  ball  bearings  of  the  vertical  suspension  or 
*'trim"  bolts  which  connect  the  upper  rails  of 
the  rear  frames  with  the  lower  rails  of  the  front 
frames  X,  Fig.  12. 

The  ball  bearings  of  the  floating  columns  (if 
applied). 

The  piston  rod  packing  of  the  cylinders  of  the 
power  reversing  gear. 

The  air  cylinder  of  the  power  reversing  gear, 
by  means  of  the  plug  in  the  top  of  the  cylinder 
{about  once  a  week). 

Blows. — To  test  for  blows  in  the  valves  or  pis- 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES.  447  . 

tons,  throw  the  emergency  operating  valve  in  the 
cab  to  the  simple  position,  namely,  with  the  han- 
dle pointing  to  the  rear.  Spot  the  locomotive  and 
test  the  same  as  a  simple  locomotive. 

NOTE. — The  Author  is  Indebted  to  The  American  Locomotive 
Company  for  the  Foregoing  Full  and  Authoritative   Description. 

Mallet  Articulated  Compound  Locomotive 
(Baldicin  Locomotive  Company). — As  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  the  Mallet  locomotive  have 
been  described,  the  articulated  boiler  connection 
which  does  not  form  a  part  of  that  locomotive  is 
given  here,  also  the  arrangement  of  the  super- 
heater and  reheater. 

The  flexible  boiler  connections  used  on  the  two 
following  engines  are  entirely  different  in  con- 
struction, engine  1158  having  a  double  ball- 
jointed  connection,  while  engine  1159  has  a  pleat- 
ed or  bellows  form  of  connection. 

On  engine  1158  the  connection  consists  of  two 
caSt  iron  sleeves,  Fig.  2,  fitted  one  within  the 
other  and  provided  with  snap  rings  to  keep  the 
joint  tight.  Each  sleeve  forms  a  ball  joint  with 
a  cast  iron  ring,  which  is  bolted  to  the  shell  of 
the  corresponding  boiler  section.  These  rings 
are  made  in  halves,  to  facilitate  assembling.  The 
ball  joints  are  kept  tight  by  rings  of  soft  metallic 
packing,  which  can  be  adjusted  by  set  screws. 
The  two  boiler  sections  can  thus  move  in  any 
direction  relative  to  one  another  and  full  pro- 
vision is  made  for  expansion  and  contraction. 

On  engine  1159  the  joint  is  composed  of  sixty 
rings  of  high  carbon  steel  having  a  thickness  of 
No.  14  wire  gauge.  Fig.  3.  These  rings  are  ten 
inches  wide  and  have  an  outside  diameter  of  sev- 


448  ENGINEEES'  AND  FIBEMEN'S  MANUAL, 


449 


450 


ENGINEEES'  AND  FIEEMEN'S  MANUAL. 


enty-five  and  one-half  inches.  They  are  made  with 
a  set,  so  that,  when  placed  adjacent  to  each  other, 
they  form  a  series  of  V-shaped  joints.  The  ad- 
jacent rings  are  riveted  together  at  the  inside 
and  bolted  at  the  outside,  and  the  connection  is 
bolted  in  place  between  the  front  and  rear  boiler 
sections.  The  products  of  combustion  traverse 
the  flexible  connection  through  a  cylindrical  flue 
forty-four  inches  in  diameter.  This  flue  is  riv- 
eted to  the  rear  boiler  section  and  prevents  cin- 
ders from  lodging  in  the  crevices  between  the 
connecting  rings. 


FI6.  3    LONGITUDINAL  AND  TRANSVERSE  SECTIONS  SHOWING  BELLOWS  TYPE  OF  BOILER  CONNECTION 


To  assist  in  holding  the  boiler  sections  in  align- 
ment, a  centering  device  is  placed  on  each  side 
on  the  horizontal  center  line  of  ^the  boiler.  This 
arrangement  consists  of  a  pair  of  helical  springs, 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


451 


which  are  seated  in  cast  steel  brackets  riveted 
to  the  shells  of  the  front  and  rear  boiler  sections, 
Fig.  4.  The  springs  are  held  in  place  between 
washers,  carried  by  a  horizontal  thrust  bar.  When 
the  engine  enters  a  curve,  the  two  boiler  sections 
assume  an  angular  position  with  reference  to 
each  other  and  by  reason  of  the  compression  of 
the  springs  on  the  outer  side  the  corresponding 
thrust  bar  is  thrown  into  tension,  thereby  tending 
to  bring  the  boiler  sections  back  into  alignment. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  in  these  locomotives 
to  place  flexible  joints  in  all  pipes  which  pass  the 


FIG.  4    CENTERING  DEVICE  USED  ON  FLEXIBLE  BOILER  LOCOMOTIVES 


articulated  connections  in  the  frames  and  boiler. 
This,  however,  introduces  no  objectionable  com- 
plication. The  steam  piping  is  simplified,  as  no 
flexible  joints  are  required  in  the  exhaust  connec- 
tion between  the  low-pressure  cylinders  and  the 
smoke  box.  There  is  claimed  to  be  a  distinct  ad- 
vantage in  the  avoidance  of  sliding  supports  under 
the  forward  boiler  section  and  the  stability  of  the 
locomotive,  when  on  -aurves,  is  not  impaired  by  the 


452  ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 

lateral  displacement  of  the  boiler  on  the  front 
frames,  which  necessarily  occurs  in  the  Mallet 
locomotive  as  usually  built. 

The  arrangement  of  the  superheater  and  re- 
heater  is  practically  the  same  on  both  engines. 
An  open  chamber  is  located  in  each  boiler  section 
adjacent  to  the  flexible  connection  and  these  cham- 
bers contain  the  heaters,  Fig.  5.  The  superheater 
is  located  in  the  rear  boiler  section  and  the  re- 
heater  in  the  front  section.  These  heaters  are 
of  the  Jacobs  type  and  each  consists  of  a  steel 
drum  traversed  by  horizontal  fire  tubes. 

The  superheater  is  exposed  to  a  higher  tem- 
perature and  steam  pressure  than  the  reheater 
and  its  tubes  are  welded  at  each  end,  while  in 
the  reheater  the  tubes  are  rolled  and  beaded.  The 
heaters  are  fitted  with  internal  baflfle  plates,  so 
that  the  steam  is  compelled  to  follow  a  circuitous 
course  among  the  tubes. 

The  throttle  valve  is  connected  with  the  super- 
heater by  an  internal  dry  pipe  and  the  steam 
enters  the  superheater  at  the  top.  There  are  two 
outlets,  placed  right  and  left  in  a  steel  casting 
on  which  the  superheater  drum  is  seated,  and 
these  outlets  communicate  directly  with  suitable 
passages  which  are  cored  in  the  high-pressure 
cylinder  saddle.  The  connections  between  the 
saddle  and  steam  chests  are  effected  by  short  el- 
bow pipes. 


MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 


453 

(X 


454  £NG{NEESS '  AND  FIREMEN 'S  MANUAL 


DICKSON    COMPOUND. 

The  Dickson  Locomotive  Works'  compound  is 
built  under  the  Dean  patents  which  cover  special- 
valves  both  for  automatic  and  for  convertible 
compounds,  but,  inasmuch  as  the  practical  infor- 
mation is  based  on  the  mechanism  for  the  former 
class  only,  the  detailed  description  will  be  con- 
fined to  the  automatic  compound. 

The  stp-rting  and  intercepting  valves  are  placed 
on  top  of  the  high-pressure  steam  chest  on  the 
right  side  of  the  engine.  Upon  opening  the  throt- 
tle for  starting,  live  steam  is  admitted  to  both 
cylinders,  but,  after  a  stroke  or  two,  the  inter- 
cepting valve  automatically  opens  and  the  engine 
works  compound  thereafter. 

The  high-pressure  exhaust  port  Q  (Fig.  79)  is  in 
the  balance  shield  of  a  Richardson  balanced  valve 
P,  having  its  top  removed,  and  thus  the  exhaust 
steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  passes  up 
through  it  and  the  intercepting  valve  G  to  the 
receiver  and  low-pressure  cylinder,  when  the  in- 
tercepting valve  G  is  open.  Beneath  the  seat  R, 
intercepting  valve  G,  is  a  port  E^  leading  to  the 
chamber  E. 

The  receiver,  as  usual  with  cross-compounds,  is 
located  in  the  smoke-box,  but  its  shape  is  out  of 
the  ordinary.  It  is  made  very  large  and,  between 
its  connections  with  the  high  and  the  low- 
pressure  saddles,  branches  into  two  forks,  each  of 
which  is  oval  and  has  metal  ribs  lengthwise  with 
the  pipes.     Fig.  80  shows  a  section  through  this 

(455) 


456        OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


double  portion  of  the  receiver.  The  object  of  the 
designer  has  been  to  obtain  a  very  large  heating 
surface,  so  as  to  re-evaporate  some  of  the  water 


^.P.  C^^zizc^e?^ 


condensed  in  the  high-pressure  cylinder  as  it 
passes  with  the  exhaust  steam  through  the  re- 
ceiver to  the  low-pressure  side.     From  the  re- 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN S  MANUAL.  457 

ported  econoni}'  of  these  engines,  it  would  seem 
that  the  object  has  been  largely  attained. 

Referring  to  Figs.  79  and  81,  it  will  be  seen 
that  tbe  intercepting  valve  G  is  fastened  to  the 
annular  stem  H  having  an  enlarged  top  above 
the  space  B  which  is  constantly  tilled  with  air 
pressure  or  live  steam  from  the  pipe  C  when  the 
engine  throttle  is  open,  and  hence  sleeve  H  will 
be  found  at  the  top  of  its  travel,  as  illustrated, 
after  the  engine  has  started. 

The  operation  is  as  follows:  Open  the  throttle 
for  starting  and  live  steam  enters  the  high- 
pressure  steam  chest  from  the  induction  ports  1 

rig.  80. 


(Fig.  79)  as  usual  and  besides  has  a  connec- 
tion to  F  through  the  top  of  the  steam  chest,  as 
shown.  There  being  no  pressure  in  the  receiver 
(to  which  chamber  E  is  connected  through 
the  open  intercepting  valve  G\  the  weight  of 
N  will  have  caused  the  converting  valve  L 
to  drop  down,  and  thus  the  live  steam  passes 
through  valve  L  into  the  tube  AJ.  Port  K  ad- 
mits steam  to  the  enlarged  top  of  the  annular 
stem  H,  forcing  the  intercepting  valve  G  down  on 
its  seat  R  and  bringing  the  ports  D  in  the  stem  H 
opposite  the  ports  J  of  the  central  steam  tube  A, 
thus  admitting  live  steam  through  them  to  the 


458 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


receiver  and  low-pressure  steam  chest.  With  the 
intercepting  valve  G  closed  (down),  the  first 
high-pressure  exhaust,  acting  in  chamber  E 
through  the  port  E\  causes  piston  N  to  lift  and 
close  the  converting  valve  L  (as  shown  in  Figs. 
79  and  81),  thereby  shutting  off  the  supply  of 
steam  from  F  to  the  central  tube  AJ.     What 

J^    S  /. 


steam  remains  in  this  tube  escapes  through  the 
relief  port  M  and  allows  the  intercepting  valve  G 
to  move  uj)  (open)  by  live  steam  pressure  from 
the  pipe  C  acting  in  the  annular  cavity  B^  as 
hereinbefore  described,  assisted  by  the  high- 
pressure  exhaust  below  G.  The  engine  then 
works  compound,  as  live  steam  is  shut  off  from 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL.         459 

the  low-pressure  cylinder  and  the  exhaust  from 
the  high-pressure  cylinder  takes  its  place. 

The  engine  above  described  is  an  automatic 
compound,  that  is,  starts  with  live,  steam  in  both 
cylinders  but  after  the  first  stroke  changes  auto- 
matically to  compound. 

The  inventor  of  this  system,  in  a  design  not 
shown,  introduces  a  reducing  valve  in  the  central 
tube  A  and  adds  a  separate  exhaust  valve  operated 
by  live  steam  from  a  three-way  cock  in  the  cab, 
thus  making  a  compound  of  the  convertible  class, 
but  at  the  same  time  he  does  not  advise  convert- 
ible construction  in  compounds. 

Accidents  to  Dickson  Compounds. — What  should 
be  done  in  order  to  run  the  engine  in  with  the 
low-pressure  side  only?  Nothing  different  from 
a  simple  engine,  but  the  boiler  pressure  carried 
should  be  reduced  about  one-half  or  else  the 
engine  throttle  opened  very  slightly. 

How  could  the  engine  run  with  the  high-press- 
ure side  only  ?  There  being  no  means  of  exhaust 
except  into  the  receiver,  the  low-pressure  valve 
would  have  to  be  placed  so  as  to  uncover  the 
exhaust  port  or,  if  that  were  found  to  be  impos- 
sible, the  valve  entirely  removed. 


RHODE    ISLAND    COMPOUND. 

The  type  of  compound  locomotive  built  by  the 
Rhode  Island  Locomotive  Works  is  sometimes 
known  as  the  "Batchellor"  system,  that  being 
the  name  of  the  inventor  of  the  device. 

In  the  saddle  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  on 
the  left  side  of  the  locomotive  is  located  an  inter- 
cepting and  a  reducing  valve  and  in  the  smoke- 
box  a  separate  high-pressure  exhaust  valve. 
When  the  throttle  is  opened,  the  engine  starts 
with  live  steam  in  both  cylinders.  With  the 
separate  exhaust  valve  closed  the  engine  auto- 
matically changes  to  compound  in  the  course  of 
a  complete  revolution;  with  it  open,  the  engine 
continues,  to  work  as  a  simple  engine  as  long  as 
desired.  This  separate  exhaust  valve  is  operated 
at  the  will  of  the  engineer  by  means  of  a  three- 
way  cock  in  the  cab;  and  thus  the  engine  belongs 
to  the  class  of  convertible  compounds. 

Fig.  82  shows  a  vertical  section  lengthwise 
through  the  intercepting  valve,  with  the  latter  in 
the  position  when  the  engine  is  either  starting 
or  being  run  as  a  single-expansion  locomotive. 
Fig.  83  shows  the  same  section  with  the  inter- 
cepting valve  in  compound  position.  R  is  the 
receiver  port;  S  is  a.  connection  from  the  main 
steam  pipe;  L  is  a  port  leading  to  the  low-press- 
ure steam  chest,  and  5  is  a  reducing  valve.  The 
intercepting  valve  is  composed  of  the  fourpistons, 
1,  2,  3  and  4,  of  which  the  last  w^orks  in  an  oil 
dash-pot  C. 

so  vol  IS  (460) 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


461 


If  the  engine  had  stopped  after  running  com- 
pound with  the  valve,  as  in  Fig.  83,  and  the  en- 
gine throttle  were  then  opened,  live  steam  from 
the  pipe  S  would  force  the  intercepting  valve 
into  simple  position  as  shown  in  Fig.  82,  because 
piston  2  is  larger  than  piston  1.  In  this  latter 
position  small  port  D  is  open  and  steam  from  S 
passes  through  it  and  the  reducing  valve  B  to 
the  low-pressure  side.  Piston  3  has  now  closed  the 
communication  with  the  receiver  R  in  which  one 


or  two  exhausts  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
soon  produces  sufficient  pressure  to  react  on  this 
piston  3,  bearing  the  intercepting  valve  to  the 
left  against  the  differential  pressures  on  pistons 
1  and  2  acting  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  the 
valve  is  shifted  to  compound  position,  as  in  Fig. 
83,  in  which  position  no  more  live  steam  can 
pass  through  port  D  to  the  low-pressure  side,  and 


462 


OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


the  receiver  B  is  connected  through  port  L  with 
the  low-pressure  steam  chest,  for  which  it  forms 
the  supply  thereafter,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows. 

The  port  leading  from  the  live  steam  supply  S 
into  the  intercepting  valve,  is  larger  than  it 
appears  from  the  illustrations,  as  it  extends  partly 
around  the  circumference  of  the  valve. 

The  separate  exhaust  valve  shown  in  Figs.  84 
and  85  is  placed  on  the  receiver  in  the  smoke- 


J^i^.  83. 

box  and,  when  opened  by  pressure  through  pipe 
P  leading  from  a  three-way  cock  located  in  the 
cab  and  under  the  control  of  the  engineer,  con- 
nects the  receiver  with  the  main  exhaust  pipe. 
The  opening  of  this  valve  will  thus  permit  the 
high-pressure  exhaust  to  escape  and  there  will 
be  no  accumulation  of  pressure  in  the  receiver. 
Hence,  from  the  previous  explanation,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  intercepting  valve  remains  in  sim- 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIRE  MENS  MANUAL. 


463 


pie  position  (Fig.  82)  until  such  time  as  the 
engineer  closes  the  separate  exhaust  valve,  when 
a  stroke  of  the  engine  automatically  changes  the 
mechanism  to  compound  position,  as  before  de- 
scribed when  starting. 

The  operation  of  the  separate  exhaust  valve, 
shown  in  Figs.  84  and  85,  is  very  simple.  Press- 
ure admitted  from  the  cab  through  pipe  P, 
moves  the  valve  T'from  its  closed  position  (Fig. 
85)  to  the  right  and  vents  the  receiver  pressure 
direct  to  the  exhaust  pipe,  as  indicated  by  the 


Open -BrtyinelVorKinj^/Simtiie..     ClosedSij^ine  Compoanel. 
Jih  Odelslund-  jSepa.rti^KExh.cLti^lVcdi;)! 


arrows,  Fig.  84.  Withdrawing  the  pressure 
from  the  pipe  P,  allows  the  receiver  pressure  to 
automatically  move  and  hold  closed  the  valve  T^, 
as  in  Fig.  85. 

Accide)its  to  Rhode  Island  Compound. — If  it  be- 
came necessary  to  disconnect  either  side,  how 
should  the  engine  be  run  ?  Disconnect  properly, 
observing  the  same  pi'ecautions  advised  for  sim- 
ple  engines,   then   c^en   the    separate    exhaast 


464  •      OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTT  VES. 

valve  so  that  no  pressure  can  accumulate  in  the 
receiver.* 

What  would  5''0u  do  with  a  broken  intercept- 
ing or  reducing  valve?  Open  the  separate  ex- 
haust valve  and  run  with  very  light  throttle,  or, 
preferabl)%  carry  a  reduced  boiler  pressure. 

Would  the  working  of  the  engine  be  affected 
if  the  separate  exhaust  valve  V  were  broken? 
Probably  not;  but,  if  it  left  an  opening  between 
the  receiver  and  the  exhaust,  the  engine  would 
run  as  a  simple  locomotive  only. 


*As  remarked  elsewhere  in  relation  to  designs  having  a  sep- 
arate exhaust  valve,  if  it  were  the  high-pressure  side  that  was 
disconnected,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  open  the  separate  ex- 
haust valve  unless  there  was  some  leakage  of  steam  into  th« 
receiver. 


THE    FOUR    CYLINDER    BALANCED    COMPOUND 
LOCOMOTIVE. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  compound  locomotive  a 
style  known  as  the  "Four-Cylinder  Balanced" 
has  been  successfully  adopted  by  several  of  the 
great  American  railways.  Of  this  style  of  loco- 
motive there  are  three  types  in  use,  known  as  the 
"Vauclain,"  "Cole"  and  "DeGlehn,"  the  charac- 
teristics of  which  are  shown  in  the  following 
table:* 

TYPE.  LOCATION     OF    H.    P.     CYL. 

Vauclain — Inside  in  line  with  L.  P. 
Cole — Inside  and  in  front  of  L.  P. 
DeGlehn — Outside  in  line  with  L.  P. 

MAIN    ROD   CONNECTION. 

Vauclain — Outside,  front  driver ;  inside,  front  axle. 
Cole — Outside,  rear  driver ;  inside,  front  axle. 
DeGlehn — Outside,  rear  driver ;  inside,  front  axle. 

VALVE   a'rRANGEMENT. 

Vauclain^Two,  piston.  One  for  each  pair  of  low  and  high 
pressure  cylinders. 

Cole — Four,  separate  piston  tandem  arrangement.  H.  P.  and 
L.  P.  on  same  stem  on  each  side. 

DeGlehn — Four,  separate  slide,  separate  valve  gear.  Two  re- 
verse levers. 

VALVE    MOTION. 

Vauclain — Stephenson  ;  two  links. 

Cole — Stephenson  ;  two  links. 

DeGlehn — Walscheat   (modified)  ;  four  links. 

It  will  be  Hoted  that  each  of  these  types  has 
certain  features  in  common  with  one  or  more  of 
the  others.  The  comparison  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing sketch  will  make  the  points  of  distinction 
and  similarity  more  clear. 

*There  is  yet  a  fourth  type  of  four-cylinder  compound  loco- 
motive known  as  the  "Von  Borries,"  but  it  has  not  been  adopted 
by  American  railways. 

(465) 


466       ENGINEERS'   AND   FTREMEN'S  MANUAL. 


e>inqie  Citron  vqiv&. 

L  POutsiOU 


Cole 


Tbndem  Vision  nair»B. 


nSB 


In^id^ 


deGiehn. 

^/€i^^u^\      y\^  Separate,  s/itte-  i^/rem . 


The  "  Vauclain"  type  has  high  pressure  cylin- 
ders inside  and  low  pressure  cylinders  outside, 
all  in  the  same  horizontal  plane  in  line  with  the 
smoke  box,  and  all  driving  the  front  driving  axle. 
A  single  piston  valve  worked  from  a  single  link 
motion  effects  the  steam  distribution  for  the  pair 
of  cylinders  on  each  side.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  the  "Vauclain"  type  are  simplicity  of 
valve  mechanism  and  location  of  cylinders  re- 


OPERATION    OF    COMPOUND    LOCOMOTIVES.  467 

quiring  the  least  deviation  from  Standard  Amer- 
ican practice  and  balanced  reciprocating  parts. 

The  ''Cole"  type  has  high  pressure  cylinders  in- 
side, in  advance  of  the  smoke  box,  driving  the 
front  driving  axle.  The  low  pressure  cylinders 
are  outside  in  line  with  the  smoke  box,  driving 
the  rear  driving  axle.  Two  piston  valves  on  a 
single  stem  serve  the  steam  distribution  for  each 
pair  of  cylinders,  and  each  valve  stem  is  worked 
from  an  ordinary  link  motion.  The  advantages 
claimed  for  the  ' '  Cole ' '  type  are  distribution  of  cyl- 
inder effort  between  driving  wheels,  simplicity  of 
valve  motion  while  providing  separate  valves  for 
high  and  low  pressure  cylinders,  perfect  balance 
for  reciprocating  parts  and  compliance  with 
American  requirements  for  location  of  cylinders 
calling  for  insignificant  changes  in  other  parts  of 
the  machine. 

The  ''De  Glehn"  type  has  high  pressure  cylin- 
ders outside  and  behind  the  smoke  box,  driving 
the  rear  drivers.  The  low  pressure  cylinders  are 
inside  under  the  smoke  box,  and  drive  the  crank 
axle  of  the  front  drivers.  Four  separate  slide 
valves  and  four  Walschaert  valve  gears  allow  of 
independent  regulation  of  the  high  and  low  pres- 
sure valves.  The  advantages  claimed  for  the 
''De  Glehn"  type  are  distribution  of  crank  effort, 
proper  steam  distribution  in  high  and  low  pres- 
sure cylinders  due  to  separate  valve  mechanisms 
and  reverse  levers,  a  perfect  balance  for  recipro- 
cating parts  and  protection  against  condensation 
by  inside  location  of  low  pressure  cylinders. 

In  the  balanced  compound  locomotive  only  the 
revolving  weights  are  considered  as  the  recipro- 
cating parts  move  to  and  fro,  balancing  each 
other,  and  have  no  effect  on  the  rail.    The  method 


468       OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


employed  by  one  of  the  largest  locomotive  builders 
of  the  world  in  determining  the  position  and 
weight  of  each  counterbalance  is  as  follows.* 

The  revolving  weights  are  concentrated  at  two 
points  on  each  side  of  the  engine;  that  is,  at  the 
centers  of  gravities  of  the  outside  pins  and  of  the 
inside  crank  pins.  These  weights  are  made  up 
(Fig.  86)  as  follows: 


IM 


Fig.  93 


^The  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works. 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL.        469 

(a)  Weights  concentrated  at  each  inside  crank 

pin,  composed  of  two  crank  cheeks,  inside 
crank  pin,  back  end  of  main  rod.  These 
weights  will  be  known  as  Wa. 

(b)  Weights  concentrated  at  each  outside  pin, 

composed  of  wrist  pin,  wrist  pin  hub,  front 

end  of  side  rod  and,  if  so  coupled,  the  back 

end  of  the  main  rod.     These  weights  will 

be  known  as  Wb. 

The  throw  of  the  weights  W^  is  balanced  by 

two  weights,  one  in  each  wheel,  throwing  in  the 

opposite  direction  to  the  crank  weights  and  of 

such  magnitude  that  the  three  parallel  forces 

thus  produced  shall  balance  each  other,  any  one 

being,  therefore,  equal  and  directly  opposed  to 

the  resultant  of  the  other  two.     The  throw  of 

the  W'Cights  Wb  is  balanced  by  a  weight  in  the 

wheel  on  the  same  side  throwing  in  the  opposite 

direction,   and    by   one   in   the   opposite   wheel 

throwing  in  the  same  direction,  the  respective 

weights  being  of  such  magnitude  that  the  system 

of  parallel  forces  so  produced  shall  balance  each 

other. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  in  the  left 
wheel  the  counterweights  which  balance  the 
revolving  weights  of  the  right  side  are  at  90  deg. 
to  those  which  balance  the  revolving  weights  of  the 
left  side  of  the  engine.  In  each  wheel  there  will, 
therefore,  be  two  counterweights,  one  opposite 
the  inside  crank  and  one  at  right  angles.  These 
two  weights  can  be  combined  by  either  graphical 
or  analytical  methods. 

In  Fig.  87  let  W^, —  weights  of  inside  criank  pin. 
Wb=  weights  at  outside  crank  pin, 


470        OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

ai  and  aa  —  distance  of  centers   of  gravities  of 

counterbalances  from  Wa. 
bi  and  b^  =  distance  of  centers  of  gravities  of 

counterbalances  from  Wb. 
The  weights  C  required  in  left  wheel  (Fig.  88)  to 
balance  Wa  Ci  x  (ai  +  as)  =  Wa  aa 

Wa  a2 

c.  = 

a,+a., 

the  weight  Ca  in  the  right  wheel  being 

Wa  a, 

ai  +  aa 

These  two  weights  throw  in  the  opposite  direfc- 
tion  to  Wa.  The  weight  Cs  required  in  the  left 
wheel  (Fig.  89)  to  balance  outside  weights  W^ 

Ca  \  =  Wb  (b,  +  b.) 
Wb  (b,  +  b,) 

^'       = 1 ■ 

This  weight  is  opposite  to  the  pin.    The  required 
weight  C4  in  the  right  wheel  being 

C.  X  bj  =  Wb  b. 
Wbbi 

b, 

This  weight  throws  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
weights  Wb. 

Since  Wa  and  Wb  are  180  deg.  apart,  the  coun- 
terweights to  balance  tiiem  in  the  left  wheel  will 
likewise  be  opposed  to  each  other,  the  actual 
weight  to  use  will  therefore  be 
K  =  Ca  — Ci. 

The  weights  in  the  left  wheel  which  balance  the 
revolving  weights  on  the  right  side  both  throw  in 
the   same   direction   and   at   90  deg.   from   the 


k 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMENS  MANUAL.        471 

weights  just  determined,   therefore,    a    second 
weight  (Fig.  90) 
Ki  =  C.  +  C. 

must  be  placed  90  deg.  from  the  above. 
These  weights  can  be  combined  either  analyti- 
cally or  graphically,  and  both  their  magnitude 
and  direction  determined  by  the  usual  method 
of  scaling  two  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
their  length  being  proportionate  to  the  counter- 
weights completing  the  parallelogram,  the 
diagonal  of  which  will  give  both  the  size  of  the 
resultant  weight  and  the  angle  at  which  it  should 
be  placed. 

It  can  also  be  determined  analytically  (Fig.  91): 

K 

and  —  =  tangent  of  the  angle. 
Ki 

To  this  point  the  weights  can  be  considered  as 
acting  at  a  radius  equal  to  the  crank  arm.  The 
weight  at  the  rim  of  the  wheel  can  be  calculated 
irrespective  of  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  (Fig.  92). 

,  ,    12  R  a 
Chord  A  B 


'i 


t    q 

R  =  Known  weight  at  crank  pin  radius  a. 

t   =  Thickness  of  counterbalance. 

q  =  Weight  of  cu.  in.  of  metal. 

In  applying  the  formula  the  thickness  should 
be  assumed.  The  sector  balance  (Fig.  93)  can 
be  calculated  as  follows : 


-V 


3    R    a 
B» . 

180  M 

2    t    q    sin  '■ — 


472       OPEEATION  OF  COMPOUND  iLOCOMOTIVES. 

B  ==  Outside  radius. 

A  =  Inside  radius. 

u  =  Number  of  spokes. 

M  =  Spaces  to  be  HUed  by  balance. 

Following  will  be  found  details  and  drawings 
of  locomotives  that  have  been  constructed  and 
put  in  operation  of  each  of  the  three  types 
mentioned. 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL.       473 
VAUCLAIN    FOUR-CYLINDER    BALANCED    COMPOUND.* 

This  locomotive  is  of  the  four  coupled  type. 
Its  construction  is  illustrated  in  drawings  Fig- 
ures 94  to  100.  The  tractive  power  is  24,000  lbs. 
when  working  as  a  compound,  and  the  cylinders 
are  approximately  equivalent  to  18.9  in.  simple 
cylinders.  The  weight  on  the  drivers  is  90,000 
lbs.,  but  with  the  balanced  construction  it  is 
claimed  a  much  greater  weight  than  this  can  be 
placed  on  these  wheels  without  injury  to  the 
track  than  would  be  caused  by  a  locomotive  of 
usual  system  of  counterbalancing.  The  boiler  is 
of  the  wide  firebox  type  for  coal  burning.  The 
mud  ring  is  5  in.  wide  at  the  sides,  to  assist  cir- 
culation. The  main  bearings  are  11^x10  in.,  the 
crank  pins  10x4  in.,  the  wheel  fits  10x8|  in.  and 
the  crank  webs  20  in.  wide  by  5  in.  thick. 

The  method  of  balancing  and  the  lightweights 
employed  are  clearly  indicated  in  the  drawing  of 
the  driving  wheels,  Fig.  96.  A  summary  of  the 
revolving  weights  is  as  follows: 


REVOLVING    WEIGHTS. 

Pin  No.  I. 

Pin  No.  2. 

Inside. 

Outside. 

Pin  No.  3, 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

403 

423 

588 

180 

153 

88 

214 

174 

148 

148 

1,079  -  965  475 

This  leaves  1,079,  minus  965,  or  114  lbs.  excess 
revolving  weight  on  the  inside  of  the  main 
wheel.  The  reciprocating  weights  are  as  follows: 


I 


*This  engine  was  built  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works 
«or  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Ry.,  1903. 


474       OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

RECIPROCATING    PARTS. 

Inside.  Outside. 

Piston    356  463 

Crosshead    310  310 

Main  rod  on  crosshead  pin 149  156 

Totals    815  929 

This  leaves  929,  minus  815,  or  114  lbs.  of  recip- 
rocating weight  in  the  main  wheel.  The  114  lbs. 
of  reciprocating  weights  are  balanced  in  the  main 
wheel  by  114  lbs.  excess  revolving'  weight  inside 
the  main  wheel,  thus  requiring  no  counterbal- 
ance in  that  wheel.  The  balance  for  475  lbs.  is 
required  in  the  rear  wheel  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  a  weight  of  208  lbs.  with  a  radius  of 
28^  in.,  as  indicated  in  the  diagram. 

RATIOS    AND   DIMENSIONS. 

Heating  surface  to  volume  of  high  pressure  cylinders,  ^  571. 

Tractive  weight  to  heating  surface,  :=  29.7. 

Tractive  weight  to  tractive  effort, '=  3.75. 

Tractive  effort  to  heating  surface,  =  7.92. 

Heating  surface  to  grate  area,  =61.3. 

Tractive  effort  X  diameter  of  drivers  to  heating  surface,  =  578. 

Heating  surface  to  tractive  effort,  =  12.6  per  cent. 

Total  weight  to  heating  surface,  =:  61.7. 

Gauge,  4  feet  8^4  inches. 

Cylinder,  15  and  25x26  inches. 

Valve,  balance  piston. 

Boiler — Type,  wagon  top. 

Diameter,  66  inches. 

Thickness  of  sheets,  11-16  and  13-16  inch. 

Working  pressure,  220  pounds. 

Fuel,  soft  coal.  ' 

Staying  radial. 
Firebox — Material,  steel. 

Length,  107  15-16  inches. 

Width,  66  inches. 

Depth,  front,  75%  inches;  back,  &7^^  inches. 

Thickness  of  sheets,  sides,  f^ ;  back,  ^ ;  crown,  }i ;  tube,  7-16 
inch. 

Water  space,  front,  4^  inches ;  sides,  5  inches ;  back,  4  inches. 
Tubes — Material,  iron,  wire  gauge  No.   11. 

Number,  273 ;  diameter,  2^4  inches ;  back,  4  inches. 
Heating  Surface — Firebox,  190  square  feet. 

Tubes,  2,839  square  feet. 

Total,  3,029  square  feet. 

Grate  area,  49.4  square  feet. 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL       47b 

Driving  Wheels — Diameter  outside,  7Z  inches. 

Diameter  of  center,  66  inches. 

Journals,  main.  loxii  inches;  others,  9x12  inches. 
Engine  Truck  Wheels — Diameter,  34%  inches. 

Journals.  6x10  inches. 
Trailing  Wheels — Diameter,  44  inches. 

Journals,  8x12  inches. 
Wheel  Base — Driving,  6  feet  4  inches. 

Rigid,   15  feet.  , 

Total  engine,  29  feet  6  inches. 

Total  engine  and  tender,  58  feet  35^  inches. 
Weight — On  driving  wheels,  90,000  pounds. 

On  truck,  front,  52,000  pounds. 

On  trailing  wheels,  estimate,  45,000  pounds. 

Total  engine,  187.000  pounds. 

Total  engine  and  tender,  about  327,000  pounds. 
Tank  capacity,  8,400  gallons. 
Tender — Wheels,  No.  8:  diameter,  34^  inches. 

Journals,  5^x10  inches. 


47P        OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  L0C0M0TIVE8. 


rmiNEERS^  AND  FIRBMENS  MANUAL. 


477 


478        OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES, 


r^f-i    r-^'i 


No.  3  Main.  No.4  Back 


Fig.  96— MAIN    ANO    REAR    DRIVING    W  M  E  e  I.  S 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL.        479 


1^'  S' 

V 
i 
i 


— >(  i 


Piu '^4  Pian4' 

Fig.  9  7  —CO  UN  TERSAUANCINO 


12  ThreaetM 


Tl 


r/mz 


■^ 


1  -/i-- 1 


style  No. I.         Fig.  ss       Style  No. 2. 

•ROWS    OTHER  CENTER     ROWS 

THAN     CENTER 

CROWN     STAVS 


4 so        OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTl  VE8. 


Fig.  99— FIREBOX.    SHOWING    S-IN      MUD    RINS 


ENGINEERS'   AND  FIREMEN'S    MANUAL.       481 


4S2       OPEIiJLTION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Another  example  of  the  Vauclain  4-Cylinder 
Balanced  Compound  is  given  in  the  following 
drawings  (Figs.  101  to  105)  and  tables.* 

This  locomotive  embodies  the  principles  of  the 
former  designs  but  is  especially  arranged,  in  the 
matter  of  detail,  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the 
road  for  which  it  was  built.  The  following  indi- 
cate some  of  the  leading  differences  between  the 
two  designs: 

Burlington.  Santa  Fe. 

Diameter  of  driving  wheels 78  ins.        '  73  ins. 

Weight  on   drivers 100,000  lbs.  90,000  lbs. 

Total  weight   192,000  lbs.  187.000  lbs. 

Total  heating  surface. .    3,216.9  sq.  ft.  3,029  sq.  ft. 

Grate  area 44.14  sq.  ft.  49.4  sq.  ft. 

Largest  diameter  of  boi'er 64  ins.  66  ins. 

Length  of  tube 19  ft.  18  ft.  i  in. 

With  the  same  size  cylinders,  15  and  25x26  in, 
in  both  engines,  the  tractive  effort  of  the  one  is 
less  than  that  of  the  other,  the  tractive  effort  of 
the  formerf  being  21,400  lbs.,  whereas  that  of  the 
latter:|:  is  24,000  lbs.,  in  compound  working  for 
both  cases.  In  the  design  of  the  locomotive  now 
being  described,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  bal- 
ancing of  the  reciprocating  parts  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  weight  on  driving  wheels,  which,  in 
this  case,  is  made  100,000  lbs.  This  engine  has 
outside  journals  for  the  trailing  w^hee  The 
crank  axles  are  forged,  and  4|  in.  pins  are  forced 
in  through  the  crank  pin  portions.  The  crank 
cheeks  are  banded  by  tire  steel  hoops,  finished 
all  over,  then  heated,  bent  to  shape  and  shrunk 
on.  The  following  are  the  ratios  and  dimensions 
of  the  engine: 

*Built  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works  for  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy,  1904. 
tXhe  A.  T.  &  S.  F.  engine. 
:The  C.  B.  &  Q.  engine. 


ENGINEERS'   AND  FIREMENS  MANUAL.        483 

RATIOS    AND    DIMENSIONS. 

Heating  surface  to  volume  of  high-pressure  cylinders,  606.9. 

Tractive  weight  to  heating  surface,  31.08. 

Tractive  weight  to  tractive  eflfort,  4.67. 

Tractive  effort  to  heating  surface,  6.65. 

Heating  surface  to  grate  area.  72.88. 

Heating  surface  to  tractive  effort,  15.03  per  cent. 

Total  weight  to  heating  surface,  59.68. 

Tractive  effort  X  diameter  of  drivers  to  heating  surface,  518.8, 

Gauge,  4  feet  8^  inches. 

Cylinders,  15  inches  and  25  inches  x  26  inches. 

Valves,  balanced  piston. 

Boiler — Type,  wagon  top.     Diameter,  64  inches. 

Thickness  of  sheets,  11-16  inch  and  %  inch. 

Working  pressure,  210  pounds. 

Fuel,  soft  coal. 

Staying,  radial. 
Firebox — Material,   steel. 

Length,  96^  inches. 

Width,  66%:  inches. 

Depth,  front,  70^  inches ;  back,  68^  inches. 

Thickness  of  sheets,  sides,  V^  inch;  back,  5^  inch;  crown,  ^ 
inch ;  tube,  Y^  inch. 

Water  space,  front,  4  inches ;    sides,  4  inches ;   back,  3  inches. 
Tubes — Material,  iron. 

Wire  gauge,  No.  11. 

Number,  274. 

Diameter,  2%=  inches. 

Length,  19  feet. 
Heating  Surface — Firebox,  166.4  square  feet. 

Tubes,  3,050.5  square  feet.     Total,  3,216.9  square  feet. 
Grate  area,  44.14  square  feet. 
Driving  Wheels — Diameter  outside,  78  inches. 

Diameter  of  center,  70  inches. 

Journals,  front,  10XI0V2  inches;  back,  9^x12  inches. 
Engine  Truck  Wheels  (Front)— Diameter,  ^^  inches. 

Journals,  6x10  inches. 
Trailing  Wheels — Diameter,  48  inches. 

Journals,  8x12  inches. 
Wheel  Base — Driving,  7  feet  3  inches.  , 

Rigid,  15  feet  6  inches.     Total  engine,  30  feet,  2  inches. 
Weight — On  driving  wheels,   100,000  pounds. 

On  truck  front,  50,000  pounds. 

On  trailing  wheels,  42,000  pounds. 

Total  engine,   192,000  pounds. 

Total  engine  and  tender,  312,000  pounds. 
Tank — Capacity,   6,000  gallons. 
Tender— Wheels,  number  8,  diameter  37^  inches. 

Journals,  5x9  inches. 
Service.  Dasseiurer. 


484       OPERATIOy  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


BNGINEER8'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL,       485 


4S6      OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES, 


Fig.    103  — LOW    PRESSURE    PISTON 


u 


»      • 

4L 


-(•Si"--    — 


v/My^m 


T- 


MX'-  — T —  — ««^- 


3 


-i-±Ul 


ij 


Fig.  104— HIGH  ppessune  piston 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL        487 


4R8      OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 
COLE    FOUR-CYLINDER   BALANCED   COMPOUND.* 

In  this  locomotive,  illustrated  in  drawings  Fig- 
ures 106  to  1 11,  the  low  pressure  cylinders  are  lo- 
cated in  the  position  common  to  simple  engines, 
being  outside  of  the  frames  and  attached  by  a 
saddle  casting  to  the  smoke  arch.  The  high 
pressure  cylinders  are  situated  forward  of  the 
saddle  casting  and  between  the  frames  which  are 
extended  to  such  length  as  to  support  them.  The 
pistons  of  the  high  pressure  cylinders  are  con- 
nected to  the  forward  axle,  which  is  suitably 
cranked  to  accommodate  such  connections  be- 
tween the  frames.  The  low  pressure  cylinders 
are  connected  to  the  rear  pair  of  drivers.  By  this 
arrangement  of  cylinders  long  connecting  rods 
are  possible  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  frames. 

The  cranks  on  each  axle  are  at  90  degrees  to 
each  other  and  so  disposed  that  the  outside  crank 
is  at  180  degrees  with  its  adjacent  inside  crank. 
The  valves  are  of  the  piston  type  and  the  valves 
of  both  the  high  pressure  and  low  pressure  cylin- 
ders on  one  side  are  connected  to  the  same  valve 
stem  and  operate  within  a  continuous  valve  chest 
which  acts  as  a  receiver  between  the  high  pres- 
sure and  low  pressure  cylinders  very  much  as  in 
the  design  of  Schenectady  tandem  compound.  The 
valves  are  operated  by  the  usual  Stevenson  link 
motion  so  that  no  complications  are  introduced 
in  this  particular.  The  high  pressure  cylinders 
are  15|  inches  in  diameter  by  26-inch  stroke  and 
the  low  pressure  cylinders  are  26  inches  in  diam- 
eter by  the  same  length  of  stroke.  The  engine 
operates  under  220  lbs.  of  steam  and  the  outside 
diameter  of  drivers  is  79  in.    Applying  these  fig- 

♦Desif  ned  by  F.  J.  Cole,  mechanical  engineer  for  the  Sche- 
nectady Locomotive  Works  for  the  New  York  Central  &  Hudson 
River  Railroad,  1904. 


ENGINEERS'    AND    FIREMEN'S  -MANUAL.  489 

ures  to  the  usual  formula  for  four-cylinder  com' 
pound  locomotives  proves  that  this  engine  is 
capable  of  a  tractive  power  of  23,800  lbs. 

This  engine  has  been  tested  in  high  speed  pass- 
enger service,  hauling  a  train  of  13  cars,  and  its 
performance  was  satisfactory.  The  general  plan 
shows  that  the  designer  has  been  able  to  success- 
fully adapt  an  entirely  new  arrangement  of  en- 
gines to  the  usual  construction  of  an  American 
Atlantic  type.  The  crosshead  and  guide  for  the 
high  pressure  cylinders  are  located  under  the 
saddle  of  the  low  pressure  cylinder,  and  it  has 
taken  considerable  ingenuity  to  work  out  the 
detail.  It  appears  to  be  a  difficult  place  to  get 
at  for  repairs  and  lubrication,  but  not  more  so 
than  the  valves  of  the  inside  connected  English 
engines,  and  when  crank  axles  and  inside  cylin- 
ders are  used  the  method  of  repairing  must  be 
adaptable  thereto. 

The  principal  dimensions  are  as  follows  : 

Weight  in  working  order,  200,000  pounds. 

Weight  on  drivers,  110,000  pounds. 

Weight,  engine  and  tender,  in  working  order,  321,600  pounds. 

Wheel  Base — Driving,  7  feet. 

Rigid,  16  feet  6  inches. 

Total,  27  feet  9  inches. 

Total,  engine  and  tender,  53  feet  8  inches. 

CYLINDERS. 

Diameter  of  cylinders,  15^^  and  26  inches. 
Stroke  of  piston,  26  inches. 
Diameter  of  piston  rod,  3  inches. 

VALVES. 

Kind  of  slide  valves,  piston  type. 

Greatest  travel  of  slide  valves,  6  inches. 

Outside  lap  of  slide  valves,  i  inch. 

Inside  clearance  of  slide  valves,  high  pressure,  V4  inch ;  low  pres- 
sure, 3^  inch. 

Lead  of  valves  in  full  gear,  ]/4  inch  lead  forward  motion  when 
cutting  off  at  1 1  inches  of  the  stroke. 

WHEELS.   ETC 

Diameter  of  driving  wheels,  outside  tire,  79  inches. 
Material  of  driving  wheels,  centers,  cast  steel. 


490      or  E  RAT  ION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Tire  held  by  shrinkage  and  retaining  rings. 

Driving  box  material,  cast  steel. 

Driving  journals,  lo  inches  diameter  by  12  inches. 

Main   crank-pin   journals,  side,  6^  inches  by  4  inches;  back,  6 

inches  diameter  by  6  inches. 
Side   rod   crank-pin   journals,    front,    5   inches   diameter  by   2% 

inches. 
Engine  truck  journals,  6Y2  inches  diameter  by  12  inches. 
Diameter  of  engine  truck  wheels,  36  inches. 

BOILER. 

Style,  straight  top,  radial  stay. 

Outside  diameter  of  first  ring,  72J4  inches. 

Working  pressure,  220  pounds. 

Material  of  barrel  and  outside  of  fireboJc,  steel  (Worth  Bros.). 

Thickness  of  plates  in  barrel  and  outside  of  firebox,  13-16  inch, 

9-16  inch,  -%  inch. 
Firebox — Length,  9<5'4  inches.  ' 

Width,  751.4  inches. 

Depth,  front.  80^  inches ;  back,  69  inches. 

Material,  carbon  steel. 

Plates,  thickness,  fs  inch ;  tube  sheet,  ^  inch. 

Water  space,  front,  4  inches  and  5  inches :  sides,  3>^  inches 
and  5^  inches;  back,  35/^  and  4K'  inches. 

Stay  bolts,  Taylor  iron,  i  inch  diameter. 
Tubes — Material     and    gauge,    Worth,    charcoal    iron.    No.    II, 
B.  W.  G. 

Number,  390  2-inch. 

Length  over  tube  sheets.  16  feet. 
Firebrick,  supported  on  water  tubes. 
Heating  Surface — Tubes,  3,248.1  square  feet. 

Water  tubes,  2^,  square  feet. 

Firebox,  175  square  feet. 

Total,  3.446.1  square  feet. 
Grate  surface,  50.3  square  feet. 

Exhaust  nozzles,  minimum,  s-)-;^  inches  maximum,  5%  inches. 
Smokestack — Inside  diameter,   18  inches. 

Top  above  rail,  14  feet  8  inches. 
Boiler  supplied  by  N.  &  Co.  Monitor  No.  11  injector. 

TENDER. 

Weight,  empty,  51,600  pounds. 

Wheels,  diameter,  36  inches. 

Journals,  diameter  and  length,  5I/2  inches  diameter  by  10  inches. 

Wheel  base,  16  feet  g^A  inches. 

Tender  frame,   lo-inch  channels. 

Central  bearings.   Fox  pressed  steel  frames  and  bolsters. 

Water  capacity,  6,000  U.  S.  gallons. 

Coal  capacity,  10  tons. 

Brake,  Wes'tinghouse-American  on  all  drivers  and  trailers,  on 
tender  and  for  train.  Corrington  consolidated  and  en- 
gineers' valve  and  parts. 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL         491 


492        OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVBS. 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL.        49? 


m 


VI 


^""S: 


fF 


■i 


494       OPERATION  OF  COM  FOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Fig.  110— HIGH    PRESSURE   CVLINOERS 


ENGINEERS'  AND  FIREMEN'S  MANUAL.        495 


496       OPERATION  OF  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 
DE  GLEHN  FOUB-OYLINDER  BALANCED  COMPOUND.* 

This  engine  weighs  about  160,000  pounds,  with 
about  83,000  pounds  on  the  driving  wheels.  Its 
maximum  tractive  effort  is  about  19,800  pounds 
running  compound.  Its  grate  area  is  33.9  square 
feet.  In  France  locomotives  of  the  same  type 
and  but  little  lighter  than  the  imported  locomo- 
tive referred  to  have  records  of  handling  trains 
of  from  200  to  300  tons  at  sustained  speeds  of  60 
to  70  miles  an  hour  for  distances  considerably  in 
excess  of  100  miles. 


♦Built  in  France  for  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  1904. 


HEIB 


mine 
ough 
ying 
estlv 
that 
case 
ight, 
nda- 
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'  the 
•n  is 
»  the 
p:es- 
)  as- 

and 
sible 
Tom 

has 


nical 
erein 
iring 
m  to 
rvice 
jject, 
St  to 


PLATE  L 


DEaORIPTION  OF  THE  LOCOMOTIVE,  A9  PKR    DIAGRAM  HEREWITH. 


Headllgbl  Reflector. 
HeadHelil  Burner. 

NetllnK. 

Deflector  Piute  Adjuxter. 
AtrPunipExbauatl>lpe. 

NoEilo  Tip. 
To?NlKK6r'Uea.J. 


Bridget 


Btt.   C^UUer  Laggli* 


m.    BoUet  Lattglug. 


THE  AMERICAN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE.— Prepared   exclusively  for   Kirkman's  "Science  of  Kailways.' 

uomuUve;iQai;lviagtIio  uiimes  by  wUcb  tlie]r  are  luiown  to  ibo^e  coniieL-U.-i]  with  tho  Mutlve  Power  Depiirtmuul     Iiltt  at  oncoaCluLrtaail  an  Eaosclopiudiu,  ottaa  purt 


CHAPTER  Xn. 

PROGBESSIVE      EXAMINATIONS      FOR      FIREMEN  — THEIR 

UTILITY QUESTIONS    AND    ANSWERS 

IN   DETAIL. 

On  all  railroads  it  is  the  practice  to  examine 
applicants  for  employment  as  firemen  although 
thf  scope  of  such  examination  differs  in  varying 
decree.  Some  sort  of  examination  manifestly 
must  be  made.  For  instance  it  is  essential  that 
the  person  seeking  service  should  in  every  case 
have  certain  physical  qualifications  as  to  eyesight, 
hearing  and  bodily  condition,  these  being  funda- 
mental ;  that  he  is  duly  qualified  in  these  respects 
is  ascertainable  only  by  examination. 

With  the  perfecting  of  the  organization  of  the 
railway  service,  the  scope  of  the  examination  is 
constantly  being  enlarged  until  it  has  become  the 
general  custom  to  examine  the  fireman  progres- 
sively, that  is  from  year  to  year  in  order  to  as- 
certain that  he  is  mastering  his  profession  and 
becoming  duly  qualified  for  the  more  responsible 
and  onerous  duties  of  engineer.  But  aside  from 
this  the  progressive  form  of  examination  has 
many  advantages.* 

♦Even  if  a  railroad  company  does  not  enforce  technical 
examinations  such  as  are  referred  to,  still  their  study  as  herein 
set  forth  will  materially  aid  firemen  and  others  in  acquiring 
the  knowledge  they  must  possess  in  order  to  qualify  them  to 
run  an  engine,  and  will  moreover  fit  them  to  take  service 
on  lines  where  such  examinations  are  In  vogue.  The  subject, 
therefore,  no  matter  how  it  presents  itself,  is  of  interest  to 
all  firemen. 

(497) 


498  EXAMINATIONS. 

The  young  man  when  first  employed  as  a  fire- 
man has  his  attention  called  to  a  number  of  facts 
concerning  the  ojjeration  of  locomotives  that  he 
must  be  thoroughly  co'uversant  with  if  he  is  to  be 
successful  as  a  fireman,  Fo'  this  reason  the  study 
of  the  question  list  during  the  year  preceding 
his  first  examination  will  keep  liim  thinking  ai^d 
studying  about  these  and  other  facts,  that  will  in- 
duce habits  of  investigation  in  order  to  solve  the 
problems  he  will  encounter  in  his  work.  This 
training  of  the  mind  followed  up  by  the  successive 
examinations  he  knows  he  must  encounter  will 
tend  to  his  development  and  to  the  mastery  of  his 
"profession  in  all  its  ramifications  so  that  when 
he  takes  charge  of  an  engine  he  is  fully  equipped 
mentally  and  physically  to  control  the  machiLe  of 
which  he  has  been  placed  in  charge  and  of  which 
he  is  expected  to  be  the  master. 

It  is  the  practice  upon  some  roads  when  a 
young  man  is  first  employed  as  a  fireman  to  send 
him  out  for  a  number  of  trips  on  an  engine  as  a 
student  under  the  instructions  of  an  experienced 
fireman  so  that  he  may  become  acquainted  with 
hand,  lamp  and  whistle  signals  and  be  sufficiently 
familiarized  with  the  scoop  to  be  able  to  keep  up 
stea.n  under  ordinary  conditions.  AVhen  he  has 
attained  this  knowledge  and  is  recommended  by 
the  engineer  under  whose  charge  he  has  been  at 
work  he  is  then  examined  as  to  his  understanding 
of  the  signals,  etc.,  and  if  found  jiroficient  is  duly 
enrolled  as  a  fireman.  Some  roads  place  the  ap- 
plicant on  an  engine  on  probation  for  a  definite 
period,  say  six  months,  with  the  understanding 
that  continued  employment  will  depend  upon  his 
conduct  and  work.    If  he  does  not  give  satisfac- 


EXAMINATIONS.  499 

tion  he  is  dropped  from  the  service  but  if  satis- 
factory his  employment  dates  from  tJae  beginning 
of  his  service. 

At  the  end  of  a  year's  service  or  as  soon  there- 
after as  possible,  the  young  fireman  undergoes  an 
examination  on  the  lines  of  the  questions,  herein- 
after set  forth,  known  as  the  "First  Series  of 
Questions."  The  examination  is  both  written  and 
oral.  If  his  answers  are  correct,  or  a  certain  per- 
centage thereof,  he  is  passed;  if  he  fails  in  the 
examination,  he  is  usually  afforded  another  trial 
with  the  same  series  of  questions  not  less  than 
two  months  and  not  more  than  six  months  from 
the  date  of  the  examination. 

When  the  fireman  has  passed  the  "first  series" 
of  questions  he  is  supplied  with  the  "second  se- 
ries" and  examined  thereon  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year;  after  passing  this  second  examina- 
tion he  is  supplied  with  the  "third  series"  and  if 
he  passes  will  be  qualified  for  promotion. 

The  underlying  reason  for  the  pains  railroad 
companies  take  to  foster  the  efficiency  of  firemen 
lies  in  the  fact  tliat  they  are  thus  building  up  a 
corps  of  competent  locomotive  engineers.  From 
this  point  of  view  it  is  necessary  that  the  firemen 
should  possess  certain  fundamental  qualifications 
such  as  an  education  of  at  least  a  common  school 
grade,  good  habits  and  a  good  physique.  Having 
these  attainments  to  start  with  advancement  will 
come  to  those  who  are  conscientious  in  discharg- 
ing their  duties  and  who  devote  some  of  their 
leisure  hours  to  study.  As  an  aid  to  this  and  in 
order  that  the  highest  efficiency  may  be  attained 
by  the  locomotive  fireman  the  questions  pro- 
pounded herein  are  placed  in  his  hands.       The 


500  EXAMINATIONS. 

preparation  necessary  to  correctly  answer  these 
questions  will  require  not  only  study  but  an  in- 
telligent understanding  of  the  many  acts  that 
make  up  his  daily  work,  which  together  will  event- 
ually fit  him  for  the  responsible  duties  of  an  en- 
gineer. 

It  will  not,  it  is  needless  to  say,  be  sufficient  to 
memorize  the  answers  to  questions  given  herein. 
They  are  given  simply  as  a  help  and  guide.  Those 
who  conduct  the  examinations  will  ask  questions 
in  different  forms  to  determine  how  well  the  per- 
son being  examined  understands  the  subject,  so 
that  it  is  necessary  that  the  full  meaning  of  eacli 
answer  be  understood. 

The  intelligent  and  conscientious  fireman  will 
make  use  of  ever^'  avenue  by  which  knowledge 
can  be  gained.  If  there  is  a  school  of  instruction 
provided  by  the  company  he  will  avail  himself  of 
its  advantages,  and  he  is  always  expected  to  seek 
his  master  mechanic,  general  foreman,  road  fore- 
man, traveling  engineer,  air  brake  inspector,  or 
any  otlier  comi:)etent  official,  for  such  information 
as  he  may  require  relating  to  his  duties.  All  this 
must  be  further  supplemented  by  close  and  intel- 
ligent obsei'v'ation  of  the  working  of  the  locomo- 
tive itself  by  careful  inspection  of  every  break- 
down or  disabled  engine  that  comes  to  his  notice 
to  observe  where  and  what  parts  have  given  way 
and  to  note  in  what  manner  the  blocking,  etc.,  is 
done. 

The  questions  that  follow  are  arranged  gener- 
ally in  the  order  prescribed  by  The  Traveling 
Engineers'  Association,  supplemented  by  others 
which  seemed  necessary  to  a  fuller  elucidation 
of  the  subject.    All  the  questions  are  specific  and 


EXAMINATIONS.  501 

such  as  are  suggested  by  the  practical  experience 
of  those  versed  in  such  matters. 

It  will  always  happen  that  conditions  on  differ- 
ent railroads  vary  as  for  instance  Compound  En- 
gines are  not  in  service  on  all  roads,  oil  burning 
locomotives  are  restricted  to  those  properties 
where  that  fuel  can  be  economically  used,  electric 
head  lights  have  not  been  universally  adopted, 
and  so  on.  For  this  reason  the  questions  and 
answers  on  these  subjects  are  given  under  separ- 
ate headings  but  are  available  in  case  of  need. 
The  author  has  not  sought  here,  any  more  than 
elsewhere,  to  be  original,  but  rather  helpful;  to 
supplement  his  limited  knowledge  whenever  pos- 
sible by  the  wider  knowledge  and  experience  of 
others.  The  particular  form  that  an  examination 
shall  take  is  not  material,  if  it  is  effective. 

In  reference  to  the  answers  given  to  the  various 
questions,  it  is  not  expected,  as  already  intimated, 
that  students  will  restrict  themselves  either  to  the 
scope  or  verbiage.  The  answers  given,  while  cor- 
rect and  such  as  to  throw  a  clear  light  on  the 
subject  are  not  necessarily  exhaustive.  It  is  ex- 
pected of  firemen,  as  it  is  of  every  man  connected 
with  railroads,  be  he  high  or  low,  that  he  will 
not  be  satisfied  with  what  he  knows,  but  will  strive 
to  keep  on  acquiring  knowledge.  It  is  not  sought 
here  to  forestall  personal  research,  but  to  add  to 
the  desire  to  acquire  it  by  careful  study  and 
thought. 

The  fireman  who  passes  an  examination  is  ex- 
pected to  answer  the  questions  correctly  or  at 
least  a  large  percentage  of  them  (generally  eighty 
per  cent).  The  information  given  will  help  him 
wonderfully  in  framing  his  own  answers  on  ex- 


502  EXAMINATIONS. 

aminatioD,  but  will  be  of  still  greater  value  in 
leading  him  to  give  each  subject  exhaustive 
thought  ou  his  own  account. 

The  three  series  of  questions  and  ans .  ers  con- 
stituting the  examinations  are  generally  familiar  to 
engineers.  Nevertheless  in  their  respect  and 
grouping  they  present  new  features  that  will  prove 
valuable,  interesting  and  instructive  even  to  them. 
It  is  the  general  rule  of  companies  enforcing 
technical  examinations  who  employ  engineers  hav- 
ing previous  experience  to  require  such  men  to 
pass  the  same  examination  as  promoted  men.  So 
that  the  exposition  of  a  locomotive  engineer's 
knowledge  as  set  forth  in  these  questions  and  an- 
swers will  appeal  to  the  engineer  who  has  been 
long  in  the  service  equally  with  the  novice  just 
entering  it,  for  if  he  is  to  maintain  his  place  in 
the  front  rank  of  his  profession  and  be  competent 
to  take  service  at  any  jjlace,  he  must  be  familiar 
with  present  day  needs  and  methods  and  the  ex- 
acting requirements  in  regard  to  the  best  and 
most  scientific  methods  prevailing  in  the  operation 
of  locomotives.* 

With  these  explanatory  remarks  the  several  ex- 
aminations will  be  given  in  their  order  denominat- 
ed as  ''Series";  thus  the  First  Series  relates  to 
the  first  year's  examination,  the  Second  Series  to 
the  Second  year's  and  the  Third  Series  to  the 
third  year's. 


*I  am  indebted  for  the  very  full  and  complete  answers  to 
the  questions  hereinafter  set  forth,  to  Mr.  E.  W.  Pratt, 
mechanical  engineer,  whose  long  experience  in  such  matters 
peculiarly  qualifies  him  as  an  authority. 


EX  AM  IX  A  TIONS.  503 


FIRST    SERIES    OF   QUESTIONS   AND   ANSWERS. 

Q.  1.  What  do  you  oonsider  essential  for  your  success  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  fuel  and  supplies? 

A.  1.  I  deem  it  essential  to  my  success  to  be  as  economical 
in  the  use  of  fuel  and  supplies  as  is  consistent  with  the  work 
to  be  performed,  working  harmoniously  with  any  engineer, 
displaying  a  willingness  to  learn  the  best  methods  and  cheer- 
fully apply  them  to  my  work.  Good  judgment  is  most  essential 
to  success  in  railroad  work  where  conditions  are  seldom  twice 
alike. 

Q.  2.  What  are  the  fireman's  duties  on  arrival  at  engine- 
house  previous  to  going  out  on  a  locomotive? 

A.  2.  To  examine  the  bulletin  board;  to  register  time  of 
arrival;  to  examine  flues  and  fire  box  and  to  make  sure  that 
boiler  is  not  leaking,  and  that  grates  and  ash  pan  are  in  good 
condition;  to  know  that  water  glass  and  lubricator  guards  are 
in  place;  before  building  up  fire  to  check  water  level  in  glass 
by  trying  gauge  cocks,  then  to  put  fire  in  proper  shape;  to  see 
that  the  required  supply  of  water,  fuel,  oil,  waste,  sand,  and 
firing  tools  are  provided,  and  that  the  required  signal  appliances 
on  the  engine  are  in  good  order;  and  to  assist  the  engineer  in 
his  work  as  is  customary. 

Q.  3.  What  pressure  is  indicated  by  the  steam  gauge? 
What  is  meant  by  atmospheric  pressure? 

A.  3.  The  internal  pressure  of  the  boiler  in  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  weight  or  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  (or 
air)  whicli  surrounds  the  earth — 14.7  pounds  per  square  inch 
at  sea  level. 

Q.  4.     On  what  principle  does  a  steam  gauge  work? 

A.  4.  There  are  two  types  of  steam  gauges.  One  is  actuated 
by  the  tendency  of  a  bent  flat  tube  to  straighten  itself  under 
the  pressure  of  water  inside  in  proportion  to  such  pressure,  a 
lever  mechanism  transmitting  the  free  movements  of  the  tube 
to  the  gauge  pointer.  The  other  type  is  operated  by  a  double 
diaphragm  of  corrugated  plates,  which,  under  the  water  pres- 
sure inside,  are  forced  outward  in  proportion  to  such  pressure, 
suitable  attachments  transmitting  the  movement  of  diaphragm 
to  the  gauge  pointer. 
■  Q.  5     What  is  the  source  of  power  in  a  steam  locomotive? 

A.  5.  Steam,  which  is  generated  by  heat.  Steam  is  the 
vapor  of  water  generated  by  heating  water  above  the  boiling 
point,  which  is  then  used  in  the  cylinders  to  force  the  pistons 
back  and  forth. 

Q.  6.  About  what  quantity  of  water  should  be  evaporated 
in  a  locomotive  boiler  to  the  pound  of  coal? 


504  EXAMINATIONS. 

A.  6.  From  five  to  seven  pounds.  One  gallon  of  water 
weighs  eight  and  one-third  pounds;  one  hundred  pounds  of 
coal  should,  therefore,  evaporate  from  sixty  to  eighty-four  gal- 
lons of  water. 

Q.  7.     What  is  steam  and  how  is  it  generated? 

A.  7.  Steam  is  the  vapor  of  water  and  is  generated  by  heat- 
ing water  above  the  boiling  point. 

Q.  8.  What  Is  the  purpose  of  the  water  gauge  glass  and 
gauge  cocks? 

A.  8.    To  indicate  the  level  of  water  in  the  boiler. 

Q.  9.  What  would  indicate  to  you  that  the  boiler  connec- 
tions of  water  gauge  glasses  were  becoming  clogged? 

A.  9.  The  up  and  down  movement  of  the  water  in  the 
glass  would  become  slow  and  inactive,  or  it  would  not  register 
correspondingly  with  the  gauge  cocks. 

Q.  10.     At  what  temperature  does  water  boil? 

A.  10.  Under  atmospheric  pressure  at  sea  level,  which  is 
14.7  pounds,  water  boils  at  212  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  tem- 
perature, however,  increases  as  the  pressure  under  which  the 
water  is  boiled  increases.  At  200  pounds  pressure  the  boiling 
point  Is  388  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Q.  11.    What  is  carbon? 

A.  11.  Carbon  is  an  element  of  nature  and  forms  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  all  kinds  of  fuel. 

Q.  12.     What  is  the  composition  of  bituminous  coal? 

A.  12.  Bituminous  coal  of  a  good  quality  contains  about  62% 
of  fixed  carbon,  about  30%  of  hydro-carbon  (volatile  matter), 
about  7%  of  ash  and  1%  of  sulphur.  Anthracite,  however.  Is 
nearly  pure  carbon  and  burns  with  a  small  flame. 

Q.  13.     What    Is    combustion? 

A.  13.  Combustion  Is  the  uniting  of  any  combustible  ma- 
terial with  oxygen,  and  when  this  material  is  coal,  It  Is  the 
chemical  union  of  the  carbon  and  volatile  gases  of  the  coal 
with  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

Q.  14.     Is  air  necessary  for  combustion? 

A.  14.  Yes,  because  one  of  the  elements  (oxygen)  necessary 
for  combustion  Is  obtained  from  the  air. 

Q.  15.  About  how  many  cubic  feet  of  air  is  necessary  for 
the  combustion  of  a  pound  of  coal  In  a  locomotive  fire-box? 

A.  15.  For  perfect  combustion  sufficient  air  must  be  had 
to  form  carbonic  acid  gas  (CO^),  which  would  be  about  300 
cubic  feet  to  a  pound  of  coal. 

Q.  16.     Why  must  air  be  heated  before  combining  with  coal? 

A.  16.  The  air  must  be  heated  to  a  temperature  high  enough 
to  produce  combustion,  which  temperature  Is  about  1800  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  In  order  not  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  fire- 
box below  the  Igniting  point  of  the  gases. 


EXAMINATIONS.  505 

Q.  17.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  provide  for  combustion  a 
supply  of  air  through  the  fuel  in  the  furnace? 

A.  17.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  a  supply  of  air  for  com- 
bustion in  order  to  furnish  the  oxygen  essential  for  combustion. 

Q.  18.  What  is  the  effect  upon  combustion  if  too  little  air 
is  supplied?    If  too  much  air  is  supplied? 

A.  18.  If  too  little  air  is  supplied,  combustion  is  incomplete, 
giving  off  carbon  mon-oxide  (CO).  If  too  much  air  is  supplied 
combustion  is  complete.  The  excess  air  must  be  heated,  how- 
ever, which  will  result  in  a  lower  temperature.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  fire-box  will  be  about  one-half  as  high  if  twice  the 
amount  of  air  required  be  supplied. 

Q.  19.  Give  a  practical  definition  of  the  igniting  tempera- 
ture. 

A.  19.  In  all  ordinary  combustion  there  is  a  certain  tem- 
perature known  as  the  ignition  or  kindling  temperature,  and 
combustible  substance  must  be  heated  to  this  temperature  in 
order  to  unite  with  the  gas  in  supporting  tne  combustion.  The 
burning  substance  must  not  only  be  heated  up  to  the  kindling 
temperature,  but  kept  as  high,  otherwise  combustion  will  cease. 

Q.  20.  State  why  such  temperature  is  necessary  and  at 
what  place  in  the  fire-box  it  is  most  required? 

A.  20.  The  hottest  part  of  the  fire-box  is  the  center.  The 
temperature  at  the  side  and  end  sheets  is  much  lower,  owing 
to  the  water  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  sheets  being  of  a  lower 
temperature  than  the  fire-box.  Therefore,  by  obtaining  as  high 
a  temperature  as  is  possible  at  the  side  and  end  sheets,  the 
steam  making  efficiency  of  the  boiler  will  be  increased.  The 
gases,  which  are  liberated  from  the  coal,  as  soon  as  it  becomes 
heated,  must  attain  a  temperature  high  enough  to  produce  com- 
bustion, which  temperature  is  about  1800  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
before  they  will  unite  with  the  air,  which  must  also  be  heated 
up  to  that  point. 

Q.  21.     How  is  draft  created  through  the  fire? 

A.  21.  The  draft  through  the  fire  is  created  by  the  action 
of  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  cylinders  passing  through  the 
nozzle  in  the  front  end  and  up  through  the  stack.  This  exhaust 
through  the  stack  acts  like  a  piston  in  driving,  the  air  and  gases 
out  and  leaving  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  front  end.  In  an 
effort  to  fill  this  vacuum  the  air  from  the  ash  pan  passes 
through  the  grates,  fire  and  flues. 

Q.  22.     Is  smokeless  firing  practicable? 

A.  22.  Yes,  by  careful  and  systematic  firing,  by  arch  brick 
and  by  some  types  of  "smoke  burners,"  and  by  the  intelligent 
co-operation  of  both  the  engineer  and  the  fireman. 

Q.  23.     In  what  condition  should  the  fire  be  in  order  that 


506  EXAMINATIONS. 

the  best  results  may  be  obtained  from  the  combustion  of  the 
coal? 

A.  23.  The  fire  should  be  as  light  as  the  work  being  done 
by  the  engine  will  permit,  evenly  distributed  over  the  grates, 
bright  and  free  from  clinkers. 

Q.  24.     How  should  the  blower  be  used? 

A.  24.  The  blower  should  be  used  very  lightly  and  care- 
fully so  as  not  to  draw  too  much  air  into  fire-box  and  through 
flues,  especially  when  fire  is  being  drawn,  cleaned,  or  is  thin  on 
grates. 

Q.  25.  What  is  the  result  of  opening  the  fire-door  when  the 
engine  is  working  steam? 

A.  25.  Too  much  opening  of  the  door  causes  the  chilling 
of  the  flues  and  the  fire-box  sheets,  producing  leakage  and 
cracks. 

Q.  26.  What  is  the  effect  of  putting  too  many  scoops  of  coal 
on  a  bright  fire?    Is  this  a  waste  of  fuel? 

A.  26.  Adding  too  much  coal  to  a  fire  at  one  time  reduces 
the  temperature  in  the  fire-box  below  the  burning  point,  with 
the  result  that  combustion  is  stopped  until  this  fresh  fuel  has 
been  heated  up  to  the  burning  point.  During  this  time,  how- 
ever, there  has  been  heat  enough  in  the  fire-box  to  drive  off  the 
gases  of  the  coal  and  the  draft  has  pulled  these  out  through  the 
stack  unburned,  thereby  causing  the  engine  to  fall  back  in 
steam  and  also  causing  the  waste  of  these  unburned  gases  that 
pass  through  the  stack,  which  is  a  waste  of  fuel. 

Q.  27.  What  effect  has  the  fire  upon  a  scoopful  of  coal  when 
it  is  placed  in  the  fire-box? 

A.  27.  The  heat  drives  off  the  gases  from  the  coal,  leaving 
the  fixed  carbon  or  coke  behind  on  the  grates.  With  a  proper 
fire-box  temperature,  the  gases  burn  with  a  long  colorless  flame, 
otherwise,  they  pass  off  unburned,  or  only  partially  burned,  and 
form  black  smoke.  The  coke,  which  is  left  on  the  grates,  burns 
where  it  is. 

Q.  28.  In  what  condition  should  the  fire  be  to  consume  these 
gases? 

A.  28.  The  temperature  must  be  high  enough  to  produce  a 
bright  white  coke  fire,  and  the  fire  light  enough  to  admit  suffi- 
cient air  to  mix  with  and  burn  the  gases. 

Q.  29.  What  is  the  temperature  of  the  fire  when  in  this 
condition? 

A.  29.  It  must  be  above  1800  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  the 
temperature  can  be  judged  by  the  appearance  of  the  fire,  a 
bright  red  fire  being  just  about  at  a  temperature  of  1800  degrees. 
Only  750  to  900  degrees  Fahrenheit  is  necessary  to  burn  the 
coke  which  remains  on  the  grate.  Coke  burns  from  the  outside, 
therefore,  less  heat  is  required  to  consume  it. 


EXAMINATIONS.  507 

• 

Q.  30.     How  can  the  fire  be  maintained  in  this  condition? 

A.  30.  By  light  and  careful  firing,  adding  coal  no  faster 
than  it  is  burned.  ^ 

Q.  31.     What  is  black  smoke?    Is  it  combustible? 

A.  31.  Black  smoke  consists  of  small  particles  of  carbon 
suspended  in  the  gases  of  combustion,  and  indicates  incomplete 
combustion.  Black  smoke  is  not  combustible;  it  is  like  lamp 
black  and  cannot  be  burned  after  having  been  produced.  The 
production  of  it  can  be  prevented  by  suitable  arrangements  and 
proper  methods  of  firing. 

Q.  32.  Should  the  gas  not  burn  in  the  fire-box,  will  it  burn 
after  it  enters  the  flues?    Why? 

A.  32.  Gas  burns  only  a  short  distance  in  the  flues  of  a 
boiler;  the  water  absorbs  the  heat  so  quickly  that  the  tempera- 
ture of  gas  is  lowered  below  the  igniting  point. 

Q.  33.  What  is  the  effect  on  the  flow  of  air  through  the  fire 
from  opening  the  door?  What  on  the  burning  of  the  gases? 
What  on  the  flues  and  sheets  of  the  fire-box? 

A.  33.  When  the  furnace  door  is  opened,  the  flow  of  air 
through  the  grate  is  stopped  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of 
air  which  passes  through  the  door.  The  vacuum  will  be  filled 
from  the  quickest  source  and  the  door  is  closer  than  some  parts 
of  the  grate.  The  gases,  mixing  with  the  air,  pass  out  through 
the  flues,  and  no  combustion  takes  place,  the  air  not  being 
hot  enough  to  unite  with  the  gas.  Too  much  opening  of  the 
door  causes  the  chilling  and  contraction  of  the  flues  and 
fire-box  sheets,  producing  leakage  and  cracks. 

Q.  34.  Can  firing  be  done  more  effectively  if  the  water  level 
is  observed  closely? 

A.  34.  Proper  firing  can  only  be  accomplished  by  watching 
the  way  the  engine  is  being  handled  and  pumped.  If  the  water 
level  is  high  approaching  a  station  or  the  summit  of  a  grade, 
the  fire  can  be  burned  low  before  shutting  off,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  engine  popping,  whereas,  if  the  water  level  is  low  a  bright 
fire  must  be  kept  up  while  the  boiler  is  being  filled.  There 
are  many  other  similar  examples  to  prove  that  the  water  level 
should  be  closely  watched  at  all  times.  Many  engineers  let 
the  fireman  pump  the  engine  so  that  he  can  regulate  the  fire 
to  correspond  with  the  amount  of  water  in  the  boiler. 

Q.  35.  How  should  the  fire  and  water  be  handled  in  start- 
ing from  a  terminal  or  other  station? 

A.  35.  Steam  pressure  should  be  near  the  maximum  and 
sufficient  water  should  be  in  the  boiler  to  last  until  the  fire 
is  burning  well  so  that  the  pressure  will  not  be  reduced  when 
water  is  put  into  the  boiler.  There  should  be  a  moderately 
heavy  bed  of  fire,  well  burned  and  evenly  distributed  over  the 
grates.     After  the  fire  is  burning  well,  the  injector  should  be 


508  EXAMINATIONS. 

started  lightly,  increasing  the  feed  gradually  so  as  not  to  cause 
any  decrease  of  steam  pressure. 

Q.  36.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  safety  valve  on  a  locomotive 
boiler?    Why  is  more  than  one  used? 

A.  36.  A  locomotive  boiler  is  built  to  withstand  a  certain 
amount  of  pressure.  In  order  to  insure  safety,  every  boiler  is 
provided  with  a  safety  valve  of  sufficient  size  to  relieve  the 
boiler  of  any  overpressure,  which  may  be  generated  in  it. 
More  than  one  safety  valve  are  used  as  additional  protection 
against  excessive  pressure;  one  being  set  at  the  maximum  pres- 
sure and  the  others  at  two  or  three  pounds  above  the  maximum 
pressure. 

Q.  37.  What  is  usually  the  reason  for  steam  being  wasted 
from  the  safety  valve?  What  can  be  done  to  prevent  this 
waste? 

A.  37.  Careless  firing,  careless  running.  Close  attention 
paid  to  the  fire,  the  injectors,  and  the  work  at  hand.  A  fireman 
who  knows  the  road  will  fire  carefully  and  will  plan  to  burn 
down  his  fire  in  approaching  stations  and  other  stopping  points 
and  the  summits  of  grades,  so  there  will  be  little  of  this  waste 
of  steam  at  the  pops  as  possible. 

Q.  38.  What  is  the  estimated  waste  of  coal  for  each  minute 
the  safety  valve  is  open? 

A.  38.  About  fifteen  pounds  of  coal  are  wasted  every  minute 
the  ordinary  pop  valve  is  open.  This  would  be  equivalent  to 
one  scoopful  of  coal  wasted  in  a  minute,  due  to  this  cause.  The 
estimated  waste  of  steam  every  second  an  engine  pops  equals 
all  the  heat  obtained  from  a  quarter  pound  of  coal. 

Q.  39.  What  should  be  the  condition  of  the  fire  on  arriving 
at  a  station  where  a  stop  is  to  be  made? 

A.  39.  The  last  coal  should  have  been  put  in  far  enough 
from  the  station  so  that  the  gases  are  burned  out  from  the 
coal  when  the  steam  is  shut  off.  There  should  be  a  good  bed 
of  fire  in  the  fire-box,  however,  so  that  the  fire  can  be  built  up 
quickly  and  the  steam  pressure  maintained  when  starting 
away  from  the  station. 

Q.  40.  How  should  you  build  up  the  fire  when  at  stations 
in  order  to  avoid  black  smoke? 

A.  40.  By  adding  small  quantities  of  fuel  at  a  time,  having 
the  door  slightly  open,  and  the  blower  on  lightly.  If  the  fresh 
fuel  is  fired  along  the  sides  and  in  the  corners  of  the  box 
Instead  of  spread  on  the  fire,  the  first  few  exhausts  will  spread 
it  and  little  smoke  will  be  formed. 

Q.  41.  Why  is  it  that  if  there  is  a  thin  fire  with  a  hole  in 
it  the  steam  pressure  will  fall  at  once. 

A.  41.    On  account  of  too  much  cold  air  being  drawn  into 


EXAMINATIONS.  509 

the  fire-box,  and  through  the  tubes,  retarding  combustion  and 
cooling  the  fire-box  and  tubes. 

Q.  42.  If  the  injector  is  to  be  used  after  throttle  is  shut 
off,  how  should  the  fire  be  maintained? 

A.  42.  Enough  coal  should  be  placed  on  the  grates  to  main- 
tain the  maximum  steam  pressure  and  the  blower  used  to 
keep  the  fire  burning  brightly, 

Q.  43.  What  would  be  the  result  of  starting  a  heavy  train  or 
allowing  drivers  to  slip  with  the  fire  too  thin  on  the  grates? 

A.  43.  The  heavy  exhausts  which  accompany  the  starting 
of  a  train  will  tear  part  of  the  fire  off  the  grates  and  draw  it 
into  the  tubes,  leaving  the  fire-bed  full  of  holes,  and  some  of 
the  fire  remaining  on  the  grates  turned  over.  A  decrease  of 
steam  pressure  will  result.  The  tubes  might  start  leaking,  and 
the  fire  would  be  in  such  condition,  that  it  could  not  be  built 
up  properly  in  a  considerable  distance.  The  grates  would 
become  clogged  up  with  green  coal,  which  probably  would  result 
in  forming  clinkers. 

Q.  44.  Where  should  the  coal,  as  a  rule,  be  placed  in  the 
fire-box? 

A.  44.  As  a  general  rule  the  bright  spots  should  be  covered 
with  fresh  coal,  as  they  show  where  the  fire  is  nearly  burned 
out  and  combustion  most  rapid,  and  these  spots  must  be 
covered  or  they  will  burn  out  and  leave  dead  spots  in  the  fire. 
The  sides  and  corners  should  be  given  the  preference,  keeping 
the  fire  a  little  heavier  next  to  the  sheets  to  prevent  too  much 
air  entering  at  these  points.  Throwing  too  much  coal  directly 
in  front  of  the  door,  particularly  in  wide  fire-boxes,  is  a  fruitful 
cause  of  clinkered  fires,  and  should  be  avoided.  The  method 
of  cross  firing  is  good  practice. 

Q.  45.     How  is  the  fire  affected  by  and  what  causes  clinkers? 

A.  45.  Clinkers  reduce  the  grate  area  according  to  their 
size,  shut  off  proportionately  the  air  supply,  and  therefore, 
interfere  with  proper  combustion.  They  are  caused  by  im- 
proper firing  and  drafting,  and  an  excess  of  .mineral  deposits 
in  the  coal.  Running  a  hoe  or  bar  through  the  fire  bringing 
the  points  of  melted  sand  together,  will  also  cause  a  clinker. 

Q.  46.  How  can  you  best  avoid  their  formation  and  dispose 
of  them? 

A.  46.  Clinkers  can  best  be  avoided  by  light  firing  and  the 
proper  manipulation  and  shaking  of  the  grates.  When  once 
formed  they  should  be  removed,  if  possible,  by  firing  around 
them  and  burning  them  out. 

Q.  47.  How  can  you  explain  the  slower  burning  of  the  coke 
and  how  understand  the  proper  manner  of  supplying  fresh  coal? 

A.  47.  The  gases  of  coal  being  lighter  than  air  will  pass 
away  whether  consumed  or  not.     The  slow  burning  of  coke 


510  EXAMINATIONS. 

is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  burns  from  the  outside  only.  When 
a  fire  reaches  a  white  or  incandescent  heat,  the  gases  have  been 
burned  and  a  fresh  supply  of  coal  should  be  added.  This  is  to 
be  done  as  light  as  the  service  performed  by  the  engine  will 
permit. 

Q.  48.  When  and  for  what  purpose  is  the  use  of  a  rake  on  the 
fire-bed  allowable? 

A.  48.  The  firing  should  be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
use  of  the  rake  would  not  be  necessary,  because  raking  the  fire- 
bed  tends  to  form  clinkers.  Especially  is  this  so  when  the  rake 
is  thrust  down  through  the  fire  to  the  grate.  When  on  the  road 
it  may  be  used  lightly  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  crust 
which  may  be  found  as  a  result  of  too  heavy  firing. 

Q.  49.  Within  what  limits  may  steam  pressure  be  allowed 
to  vary,  and  why? 

A.  49.  Pressure  should  not  be  allowed  to  vary  more  than  five 
pounds  from  the  maximum,  as  any  greater  variation  is  liable  to 
cause  unequal  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  boiler  which 
may  start  the  flues  leaking,  etc. 

Q.  50.  Has  improper  firing  any  tendency  to  cause  the  tubes 
to  leak?    How? 

A.  50.  It  certainly  has.  Improper  firing  may  mean  holes  in 
the  fire  or  may  mean  dead  spots  or  banks  which  will  cause  sud- 
den changes  of  the  temperature  of  the  fire-box,  which  are  almost 
certain  to  produce  leaky  fiues.  This  is  especially  true  with  wide 
fire-box  engines,  where  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  fire  care- 
fully in  order  to  avoid  this  trouble.  Carrying  the  fire  too  heavy 
in  some  places  causes  clinkers  to  form.  If  the  door  is  open  too 
long,  too  much  cold  air  is  drawn  over  the  fire,  causing  the  tubes 
to  leak. 

Q.  51.     What  do  you  consider  abuse  of  a  boiler? 

A.  51.  Overpumping  the  boiler,  improper  firing,  or  allowing 
the  steam  pressure  to. drop  back  and  then  blowing  the  engine 
up  quickly,  thereby  causing  unnecessary  expansion  and  con- 
traction. 

Q.  52.  Does  the  stopping  up  of  flues  affect  the  steaming 
capacity  of  the  engine? 

A.  52.  Yes.  Obstructed  flues  reduce  the  steaming  capacity 
of  the  engine,  and,  as  a  rule,  result,  in  their  leaking.  An  increase 
of  speed  of  the  gases  through  the  remaining  flues  is  also  caused, 
resulting  in  imperfect  combustion  and  a  poor  steaming  engine. 

Q.  53.     What  causes  honeycomb  over  the  flues? 

A.  53.  Honeycomb  on  flues  is  usually  caused  by  the  draft 
through  the  fire  picking  up  the  sulphur  and  molten  clay,  which 
is  in  a  melted  and  sticky  condition  in  the  fire.  As  the  draft 
passes  on  to  the  stack,  some  of  this  substance  strikes  the 
flue  sheet  and  sticks  or  passes  through  the  flues,  clogging  up 


EXAMINATIONS.  511 

the  netting  in  the  front  end.     The  brick  arch  will  practically 
prevent  this. 

Q.  54.  How  would  you  take  care  of  a  boiler  with  leaky 
tubes  or  fire-box,  and  why? 

A.  54.  Keep  a  bright  clean  fire  especially  under  flues,  and 
maintain  the  steam  pressure  as  even  as  possible,  keeping  the 
fire-box  door  open  as  little  as  possible  and  avoiding  the  use  of 
the  blower,  in  order  to  reduce  the  expansion  and  contraction 
to  a  minimum. 

Q.  55.  Why  is  it  very  important  that  coal  should  be  broken 
so  that  it  will  not  be  larger  than  an  ordinary  sized  apple  before 
being  put  into  the  fire-box? 

A.  55.  Because,  if  the  coal  is  so  broken,  a  greater  surface  is 
presented  to  the  action  of  the  fire,  burning  takes  place  more 
rapidly,  the  coal  can  be  spread  more  evenly,  a  better  fire  can 
be  maintained,  and  better  results  are  obtained. 

Q.  56.     Should  rapid  firing  be  practiced? 

A.  56.  It  should  not.  Rapid  firing  is  wrong  for  the  same 
reason  that  heavy  firing  is  wrong.  A  few  moments  should 
lapse  between  each  shovelful  to  permit  the  fresh  coal  to  get 
to  burning,  and  to  maintain  the  high  temperature  in  the  fire- 
box. 

Q.  57.     When  and  why  should  you  wet  the  coal  on  the  tender? 

A.  57.  Coal  should  be  wet  for  the  purpose  of  cleanliness  to 
keep  dust  from  flying.  The  sharp  exhaust  would  pull  a  large 
percentage  of  fine  coal  through  the  fiues  and  out  of  the  stack 
unburned  if  not  wet.  To  overcome  these  objections  it  should 
be  wet  as  often  as  necessary. 

Q.  58.     What  are  the  advantages  of  a  large  grate  surface? 

A.  58.  The  advantages  of  a  large  grate  surface  are  that  the 
draft  does  not  need  to  be  so  heavy  on  the  fire,  the  rate  of  com- 
bustion of  the  coal  is  less  than  with  the  narrow  fire-box,  and 
greater  economy  can  be  obtained  in  burning  the  coal. 

Q.  59.  Why  are  grates  made  to  shake,  and  how,  when  and 
where  should  they  be  shaken? 

A.  59.  The  grates  are  made  so  that  they  can  be  shaken  in 
order  that  the  fire  may  be  kept  clean  from  clinkers  and  the 
refuse  be  shaken  out  into  the  ash-pan.  They  should  be  shaken 
often  enough  to  keep  the  fire  clean  and  in  good  condition,  but  not 
while  passing  over  bridges,  near  lumber  or  hay  yards,  or  through 
prohibited  territory.  The  best  time,  however,  to  shake  the 
grates  is  when  the  throttle  is  closed,  as  then  there  is  no  exhaust 
to  carry  the  unconsumed  gases  and  sulphur  through  the  fiues 
Into  the  front  end,  which  are  liable  to  choke  or  clog  up  netting 
and  cause  steam  failure. 

Q.  60.     Do  you  understand  that  coal  furnished  represents 


512  EXAMINATIONS. 

money  invested,  and  should  be  fired  economically  and  not 
allowed  to  fall  out  of  the  gangway? 

A.  60.  I  do.  The  fuel  for  locomotives  is  the  greatest  single 
expense  of  a  railroad  company,  and  the  coal  should,  therefore, 
be  fired  carefully  and  economically.  The  gangways  and  deck 
should  be  kept  clean,  and  no  coal  be  allowed  to  fall  from  them 
as  it  is  wasted,  dangerous  and  not  in  accordance  with  safety 
rules. 

Q.  61.  Is  it  objectionable  to  fill  the  tanks  too  full  of  coal  or 
overflow  tank  at  standpipes  or  wateB  tanks? 

A.  61.  It  is.  Tanks  filled  too  full  of  coal  are  dangerous  and 
a  waste  of  coal,  as  a  part  of  it  will  fall  off  when  running,  and 
water  spilled  washes  away  the  ballast  and  freezes  over  the 
track  in  cold  weather,  being  dangerous,  and  expensive  to  re- 
move. 

Q.  62.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  fireman  on  arrival  at  the 
terminal? 

A.  62.  To  take  in  signals  and  put  them  in  their  proper 
place;  to  leave  the  fire  in  good  cendition,  the  water  in  boiler 
Bufficient  to  last  until  hostler  assumes  charge,  and  the  cab  in 
a  clean  condition;  and  in  winter  to  know  that  all  heaters  are 
operating  properly.  In  fact,  attend  to  any  other  duties  pre- 
scribed by  the  road  for  which  he  is  working. 

Q.  63.  Is  the  engineer  responsible  for  the  fireman's  conduct 
while  on  duty  and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  fireman's  duties 
are  performed? 

A.  63.  He  is.  The  fireman  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
engineer,  and  should  endeavor  to  do  his  work  in  co-operation 
with  him  and  in  a  manner  pleasing  to  him. 

Q.  64.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  superheater  damper  and 
how  does  it  operate? 

A.  64.  The  duty  of  the  superheater  damper  is  to  control  the 
flow  of  gases  through  the  large  flues,  thus  protecting  the  units 
from  being  overheated  after  the  throttle  is  closed.  When  the 
engine  is  not  working  steam  the  damper  should  be  closed. 

Q.  65.  What  will  be  the  effect  on  the  steaming  of  the  engine 
if  the  damper  does  not  open  properly? 

A.  65.  The  engine  will  steam  poorly  because  there  will  be 
no  draft  through  the  large  flues.  The  steam  will  not  be  super- 
heated because  the  heated  gases  cannot  come  in  contact  with 
the  superheater  units,  located  in  the  large  flues. 

Q.  66.  How  may  steam  failure  be  avoided  in  case  the  dam- 
per fails  to  operate? 

A.  66.  Should  the  damper  fail  to  operate  tie  the  counter- 
weight up,  thus  opening  the  damper. 


EXAMINATIONS.  513 


AIR  BRAKE  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS.     FIRST  SERIES* 

Q.  1.     What  is  an  air  brake? 

A.  1.     A  brake  operated  by  compressed  air. 

Q.  2.     How  is  this  air  compressed? 

A.  2.     By  an  air  pump  or  compressor  on  the  locomotive. 

Q.  3.  Name  the  different  parts  of  the  air  brake  as  applied 
to  the  locomotive. 

A.  3.  Air  pump,  engineer's  brake  valves,  triple  valve, 
auxiliary  reservoir,  automatic  control  or  distributing  valve  and 
its  divided  reservoir,  brake  cylinders,  main  reservoirs,  air 
gauges,  pump  governors,  angle  cocks,  cut-out  cocks,  and  the 
necessary  pipe  and  fittings  for  connecting  the  different  parts. 

Q.  4.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  main  reservoir? 

A.  4.  The  main  reservoir  is  used  for  storing  a  large  volume 
of  air  for  promptly  releasing  the  brakes,  recharging  brake  pipe 
and  auxiliary  reservoirs.  With  the  E.  T.  and  L.  T.  equipments, 
main  reservoir  air  is  used  to  supply  the  brake  cylinders  when 
brake  is  applied  on  engine  and  tender. 

Q.  5.  For  what  other  appliance  is  the  main  reservoir  air 
used? 

A.  5.  It  is  used  in  operating  the  sand  blower,  the  bell 
ringer,  the  water  scoop,  the  water  sprinkler,  the  fire-door,  the 
air  signal  whistle,  etc. 

Q.  6.  What  does  the  red  hand  on  each  of  the  air  gauges 
indicate? 

A.  6.  Main  reservoir  pressure  on  the  large  gauge  and  brake 
cylinder  pressure  on  the  small  gauge. 

Q.  7.  What  does  the  black  hand  on  each  of  the  air  gauges 
indicate? 

A.  7.  The  black  hand  indicates  equalizing  reservoir  pres- 
sure on  the  large  gauge  and  brake  pipe  pressure  on  the  small 
gauge. 

Q.  8.  What  pressure  is  usually  carried  in  the  main  reser- 
voir? 

A.  8.  Ninety  pounds  in  freight  and  one  hundred  and  thirty 
pounds  in  passenger  service.  Where  freight  engines  are 
equipped  with  duplex  pump  governor,  the  low  pressure  top  is 
adjusted  to  ninety  pounds  and  the  high  pressure  top  is  ad- 
justed to  one  hundred  and  thirty  pounds. 

Q.  9.     What  pressure  is  usually  carried  in  the  brake  pipe? 

A.  9.  Seventy  pounds  in  freight  and  one  hundred  and  ten 
pounds  in  passenger  service. 


*The   Air    Brake    is    fully    described    and    illustrated    in    another 
volume  of  the  Science  of  Railways  devoted  to  the  subifot. 


514  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  10.  What  must  the  air  pass  through  in  flowing  from  the 
main  reservoir  to  the  brake  pipe? 

A.  10.  The  air  must  pass  through  the  automatic  brake 
valve. 

Q.  11.    Name  the  different  positions  of  the  brake  valve. 

A.  11.  With  the  automatic  valves,  full  release,  running,  lap, 
service,  and  emergency;  except  the  valves  used  with  E,  T.  and 
L.  T.  equipments,  which  have  an  additional  position  known  as 
holding. 

Q.  12.  Name  the  different  positions  of  the  straight  air  brake 
valve. 

A.  12.     With  straight  air  valves,  release,  lap  and  application. 

Q.  13.     How  many  kinds  of  triple  valves  are  there  in  use? 

A.  13.     Two,  the  plain  triple  and  the  quick  action  triple. 

Q.  14.     How  is  the  automatic  brake  applied?    How  released? 

A.  14.  It  is  applied  by  reducing  the  pressure  in  the  brake 
pipe  and  is  released  by  restoring  the  pressure  in  the  brake 
pipe. 

Q.  15.  When  the  straight  air  brake  valve  handle  is  placed 
in  application  position,  are  the  train  brakes  affected? 

A.  15.  No.  Only  the  brakes  on  the  engine  and  tender  are 
applied. 

Q.  16     What  controls  the  pressure  in  the  main  reservoir? 

A.  16.  The  pressure  in  the  main  reservoir  is  controlled  by 
the  pump  governor. 

SECOND  SERIES  OF  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS. 

Q.  1.  What,  in  your  opinion,  is  the  best  way  to  fire  a  loco- 
motive? 

A.  1.  To  fire  as  lightly  as  is  consistent  with  the  work  re- 
quired; to  avoid  smoke  trailing  back  over  the  train;  to  avoid 
popping;  to  endeavor  to  maintain  a  uniform  steam  pressure 
under  all  circumstances,  and  to  carry  a  nice  level  fire  on  the 
grates,  a  little  heavier  at  the  sides  and  corners;  to  keep  the 
air  from  coming  through  it  near  the  sheets  as  rapidly  as  in 
the  center  of  the  fire-box. 

Q.  2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  superheated  steam  over 
saturated  steam  in  locomotive  service? 

A.  2.  Economy  of  water  consumption;  economy  of  fuel; 
increased  boiler  capacity  and  a  more  powerful  locomotive. 
Superheated  steam  contains  a  gi-eater  amount  of  energy  per 
pound  than  dry,  saturated  steam.  It  does  away  absolutely  with 
condensation  in  the  cylinders  while  saturated  steam  coming 
in  contact  with  passages  in  cylinder  saddle  and  walls  of  cylin- 
ders, is  immediately  cooled,  and,  therefore,  part  of  it  is  changed 


EXAMIXATIOXS.  515 

back  into  water,  which  affects  the  pressure  and  its  capacity 
to  do  the  work. 

Q.  3.     How  is  the  saving  in  water  produced? 

A.  3.  By  eliminating  all  cylinder  condensation  present  in 
saturated  steam,  and  the  increase  in  volume  of  a  given  weight 
of  steam. 

Q.  4.     How  is  the  saving  in  coal  accomplished? 

A.  4.  Because  less  steam  is  required  to  do  a  given  amount 
of  work,  therefore,  less  water  is  evaporated,  and  consequently 
less  coal  is  required  to  evaporate  the  water. 

Q.  5.     How  is  the  increased  boiler  capacity  obtained? 

A.  5.  A  boiler  will  evaporate  a  certain  amount  of  water  into 
steam,  which  4s  always  on  the  point  of  giving  up  some  of  its 
heat  and  turning  into  water,  thereby  reducing  the  volume  and 
pressure.  Superheating  eliminates  the  loss,  owing  to  con- 
densation and  increases  the  available  useful  steam.  It  also 
increases  the  volume  of  a  given  weight  of  steam,  thereby  re- 
ducing the  consumption  of  steam  required  to  develop  a  certain 
power,  and,  therefore,  increases  the  capacity. 

Q.  6.     How  is  a  more  powerful  engine  obtained? 

A.  6.  The  increased  boiler  capacity  permits  working  the 
engine  at  a  longer  "cut-off"  before  a  steam  failure  occurs. 

Q.  7.  What  type  of  fire  tube  superheater  is  in  most  general 
use  in  locomotive  service? 

A.  7.  Schmidt,  top  header,  superheater,  which  consists  of 
a  system  of  units  located  in  the  large  flues,  through  which  the 
steam  passes  on  its  way  from  the  dry  pipe  to  the  steam  pipes. 
A  damper  mechanism  controls  the  flow  of  gases  through  the 
large  flues. 

Q.  8.     Describe  the  construction  and  location  of  the  header. 

A.  8.  The  header  is  a  casting  divided  by  partition  walls 
into  saturated  and  superheated  steam  passages.  It  is  located 
in  the  top  portion  of  the  smoke-box  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
work  in  the  smoke-box,  and  is  connected  to  the  dry  pipe  at  one 
end,  and  the  steam  pipes  at  the  other.  In  locating  the  super- 
heater header,  its  face  for  superheater  unit  joints  should  be 
square  with  the  tube  sheet,  parallel  to  the  top  row  of  flues, 
and  the  correct  distance  above  them,  to  insure  correct  position 
of  the  superheater  units  in  the  flues.  It  should  be  firmly  sup- 
ported at  the  ends  by  header  supports,  securely  fastened  to 
the  sides  of  the  smoke-box. 

Q.  9.  Describe  the  construction  of  superheater  units  and 
their  connection  to  the  header. 

A.  9.  The  units  consist  of  seamless  steel  tubing,  four  in 
number,  connected  by  three  return  bends.  Of  the  four  pipes, 
two  are  straight  and  two  are  bent  upward  and  connected  to 


516  EXAMINATIONS. 

the  header  by  means  of  a  clamp  and  bolt.  One  end  of  the 
unit  is  in  communication  with  the  saturated  steam  passage, 
and  the  other  with  the  superheated  steam  passage  in  the 
header. 

Q.  10.  Trace  the  flow  of  steam  through  the  top  header 
fire  tube  type  superheater. 

A.  10.  On  opening  the  throttle  the  saturated  steam  passes 
through  the  dry  pipe  into  the  saturated  steam  passage  of  the 
header  casting.  From  this  passage  it  goes  into  one  end  of 
the  unit,  passing  backward  toward  the  fire-box,  forward  through 
one  of  the  straight  pipes  and  the  front  return  bend,  backward 
through  the  other  straight  pipe  to  the  back  return  bend,  and 
forward  through  the  bent  pipe  and  upward  into  the  superheater 
steam  passage  of  the  header,  from  which  it  enters  the  steam 
pipes  and  steam  chests. 

Q.  11.  What  should  be  the  position  of  throttle  valve  when 
r>nning  a  superheater  locomotive? 

A.  11.  Superheater  locomotives  should  be  operated  with  as 
full  a  throttle  as  working  conditions  permit,  regulating  the 
steam  admission  to  the  cylinders  in  accordance  with  the  work 
*o  be  performed. 

Q.  12.  What  should  be  the  position  of  throttle  while  drift- 
mg? 

A.  12.  The  position  of  the  throttle  while  drifting  should 
be  slightly  open,  so  as  to  admit  a  small  quantity  of  steam 
to  the  valve  chamber  and  cylinder  above  atmospheric  pressure, 
to  prevent  the  inrush  of  hot  air  and  gases  which  destroy  lubri- 
cation, and  also  to  avoid  excessive  wear  to  valve,  cylinder 
and  piston  rod  packing. 

Q.  13.  How  should  the  water  be  carried  in  boiler  of  super- 
heater locomotives? 

A.  13.  Water  should  be  carried  in  boiler  of  superheater 
locomotives  as  low  as  conditions  will  permit.  This  practice 
reduces  the  tendency  to  work  water  over  into  the  dry  pipe 
and  units,  as  the  superheater  locomotive  will  use  one-third 
less  water  than  the  saturated  locomotive. 

Q.  14.  What  care  should  be  exercised  in  lubricating  a  super- 
heater locomotive? 

A.'14.  The  engineer  should  watch  very  closely  the  supply 
of  oil  to  the  steam  chests  and  he  should  know  that  the  lubri- 
cator is  feeding  constantly  and  evenly  over  the  entire  division, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  work  to  be  done. 

Q.  15.     Describe  the  general  form  of  a  locomotive  boiler. 

A.  15«  It  is  cylindrical  in  form.  It  has  usually  a  rec- 
tangular shaped  fire-box  at  one  end  and  a  smoke-box  at  the 
other  end.  Flues  run  through  the  cylindrical  part,  which, 
like  the  fire-box,  are  surrounded  by  water. 


EXAMINATIONS.  517 

Q.  16.  How  does  the  wide  fire-box  type  of  boiler  differ 
-from  the  ordinary  boiler,  and  what  are  its  advantages? 

A.  16.  The  ordinary  "deep"  fire-box  is  limited  in  width  to 
the  distance  between* the  frames;  the  "shallow"  fire-box  sets 
on  top  of  the  frames,  and  over  the  driving  wheels.  The  wide 
fire-box  is  not  only  above  the  frames,  but  extends  out  on  each 
side  of  the  driving  wheels.  The  advantage  is  to  obtain  a  larger 
grate  area  in  the  same  length  fire-box  so  as  to  cause  slower 
combustion  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface. 

Q.  17.  Why  have  two  fire-box  doors  been  placed  in  the  large 
type  of  locomotive  boilers? 

A.  17.  Owing  to  the  greater  width  of  the  fire-box,  two 
doors  have  been  placed  in  the  large  type  of  locomotive  boilers 
so  that  the  coal  can  be  more  conveniently  distributed  to  all 
parts  of  the  fire-box. 

Q.  18.     Describe  a  locomotive  fire-box. 

A.  18.  The  modern  form  of  locomotive  fire-box  is  a  rec- 
tangular shaped  structure  located  at  the  back  end  of  the 
boiler.  It  has  a  dooj-  and  is  composed  of  two  side  sheets,  a 
crown  sheet,  a  back  sheet,  and  a  flue  sheet  from  which  the 
flues  extend  to  the  smoke-box  at  the  other  end  of  the  boiler. 

Q.  19.     To  what  strains  is  a  fire-box  subjected? 

A.  19.  To  the  crushing  strains  of  the  steam  pressure  and 
the  unequal  expansion  and  contraction  of  plates,  stay-bolts,  etc. 

Q.  20.     How  are  the  sheets  of  a  fire-box  supported? 

A.  20.  They  are  supported  by  means  of  stay-bolts,  screwed 
through  the  inside  and  outside  sheets  with  their  ends  riveted 
over. 

Q.  21.     In  what  manner  is  a  crown  sheet  supported? 

A.  21.     By  means  of  crown  bars  or  radial  stay-bolts. 

Q.  22.     What  are  the  bad  features  about  crown  bars? 

A.  22.  They  are  hard  to  keep  clean  and  frequently  cause 
"mud-burned"  crown  sheets. 

Q.  23.  What  are  the  advantages  of  radial-stayed  crown 
sheets? 

A.  23.  They  are  comparatively  easy  to  keep  clean  and 
cheaper  to  repair. 

Q.  24.  How  are  the  inside  and  outside  sheets  of  a  fire-box 
secured  at  the  bottom? 

A.  24.  They  are  riveted  to  a  wrought  iron  ring  called  a 
mud  ring. 

Q.  25.     Describe  the  ash-pan  and  its  use. 

A.  25.  The  ash-pan  is  a  receptacle  secured  to  the  bottom 
of  the  fire-box,  and  is  provided  with  two  or  more  dampers  de- 
signed to  regulate  the  admission  of  air  to  the  fire.  It  collects 
the  ashes  dropped  from  the  fire-box  and  thus  prevents  their 
setting  fire  to  bridges,  cattle  guards,  and  other  property  else- 


518  EXAMINATIONS. 

where  along  the  road.  Enginemen  should  see  that  the  ash-pan 
slide  and  hopper  bottoms  are  closed  before  leaving  engine 
house. 

Q.  26.     What  is  a  "wagon-top"  boiler? 
•  A.  26.     It  is  a  boiler  which  has  the  fire-box  end  made  larger 
than  the  cylindrical  part  in  order  to  provide  more  steam  space, 

Q.  27.     Why  are  boilers  provided  with  steam  domes? 

A.  27.  To  furnish  more  steam  space,  to  obtain  drier  steam 
and  to  provide  a  place  for  the  steam  pipes,  throttle  valve,  safety 
valves  and  whistle. 

Q.  28.  What  must  be  the  condition  of  a  boiler  to  give  the 
best  results? 

A.  28.  It  must  have  a  good  circulation,  flues  and  seams 
tight,  no  flues  stopped  up,  and  no  leaks  at  other  places,  and 
must  be  clean  and  free  from  mud  and  scale. 

Q.  29.     What  is  meant  by  "circulation"  in  a  boiler? 

A.  29.  The  free  movement  of  the  water,  so  that  it  may 
come  in  contact  with  the  heating  surfaces,  and  after  being  con- 
verted into  steam,  be  Immediately  replaced  by  fresh  supplies 
of  water. 

Q.  30.  What  would  be  the  effect  if  a  "leg"  of  the  flre-box 
became  filled  with  mud? 

A.  30.  There  would  be  no  water  in  contact  with  the  fire-box 
sheets  and  they  would  in  consequence  become  blistered  or 
"mud  burned."  (The  narrow  water  space  between  the  inside 
and  outside  sheets  of  the  fire-box  is  termed  the  "leg"  of  a 
boiler.) 

Q.  31.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  fire-box  sheets  be- 
came overheated. 

A.  31.  They  would  be  forced  off  the  stay-bolts  and  an  ex- 
plosion would  occur. 

Q.  32.  Would  it  be  advisable  to  put  water  into  a  boiler  after 
the  sheets  had  become  bare  and  red  hot? 

A.  32.     It  would  not.     The  fire  should  be  killed  at  once. 

Q.  33.  What  effect  has  the  stoppage  of  a  large  number 
of  flues? 

A.  33.  The  heating  surface  and  draft  are  decreased  by  just 
so  much  area. 

Q.  34.  Why  are  boiler  checks  placed  so  far  away  from  the 
fire-box? 

A.  34.  In  order  to  introduce  the  water  into  the  boiler  at 
as  great  a  distance  from  the  fire-box  as  is  possible.  This  permits 
the  water  to  become  heated  to  a  high  temperature  before 
coming  in  contact  with  the  fire-box  and  also  tends  to  better  cir- 
culation. 

Q.  35.  What  part  of  the  boiler  has  the  greatest  pressure? 
Why? 


EXAMIXATIONS.  519 

A.  35.  The  bottom,  because  the  weight  of  water  is  added, 
in  addition  to  the  steam  pressure. 

Q.  36.     What  are  the  advantages  of  the  extension  front  end? 

A.  36.  To  provide  room  for  suitable  draft  and  spark  ap- 
pliances. 

Q.  37.  What  is  the  purpose  of  a  netting  in  a  smoke-box 
or  front  end? 

A.  37.  To  crush  the  cinders  and  prevent  the  large  ones  from 
passing  out  of  the  front  end,  through  the  stack. 

Q.  38.     What  is  the  object  of  hollow  stay-bolts? 

A.  38.  To  immediately  indicate  that  the  stay-bolt  is  broken 
"by  the  escape  of  steam  through  the  small  (detector)  hole. 

Q.  39.     What  will  cause  the  engine  to  tear  holes  in  the  fire? 

A.  39.  Working  hard,  or  slipping  with  dampers  open  and 
doors  closed,  or  too  thin  a  fire. 

Q.  40.  Name  the  various  adjustable  appliances  in  the  front 
end  by  which  the  draft  may  be  regulated. 

A.  40.  The  exhaust  nozzle,  the  diaphragm  and  the  draft 
pipes  or  petticoat  pipe. 

Q.  41.  What  object  is  there  in  having  the  exhaust  steam 
go  through  the  stack? 

A.  41.     To  produce  a  forced  draft  on  the  fire. 

Q.  42.     How  does  this  affect  the  fire? 

A.  42.  The  exhaust  steam  passing  through  the  stack  tends 
to  empty  the  smoke-box  of  gases,  producing  a  partial 
vacuum  there.  Atmospheric  pressure  then  forces  the  air 
through  the  grates  and  tubes  to  refill  the  smoke-box,  thus 
causing  the  fire  to  burn  more  rapidly,  producing  a  much  higher 
temperature  than  could  be  obtained  by  natural  draft. 

Q.  43.  Explain  what  adjustments  can  be  made  and  the 
effect  of  each  adjustment  on  the  fire. 

A.  43.  Larger  or  smaller  nozzle  tips  cause  less  or  greater 
draft  on  the  fire;  angle  and  position  of  the  diaphragm  does 
the  same  and  raising  or  lowering  it  burns  the  fire  more  at  the 
rear  or  front  end  of  the  fire-box.  The  size  and  position  of  the 
petticoat  pipe  increases  or  decreases  the  draft  through  the  top 
or  bottom  flues.  These  latter  adjustments  should  always 
bfc  attempted  before  reducing  the  nozzle. 

Q.  44.  What  does  it  indicate  when  the  exhaust  issues 
strongest  from  one  side  of  the  stack. 

A.  44.  The  stack,  exhaust  pipe,  or  petticoat  pipe  are  out 
uf  plumb. 

Q.  45.  What  is  the  effect  of  leaky  steam  pipe  joints  inside 
the  smoke-box? 

A.  45.     Engine  will  not  steam  freely. 

Q.  46.     What  causes  "pull"  on  the  fire-box  door? 

A.  46.     The   partial   vacuum   in   the   front   end;    excessive 


520  EXAMINATIONS. 

"pull"  indicates  dampers  closed,  fire  clinkered  or  grates  stopped 
up. 

Q.  47.  If  upon  opening  the  fire-box  door  you  discover  there 
what  is  commonly  called  a  red  fire,  what  might  be  the  cause? 

A.  47.  That  the  grates  have  become  clogged  with  ashes 
and  clinkers  so  that  sufficient  air  could  not  pass  through  them 
to  the  fire. 

Q.  48.  Is  it  not  a  waste  of  fuel  to  open  the  fire-box  door 
to  prevent  pops  from  opening?  How  can  this  be  prevented 
more  economically? 

A.  48.  Yes,  sometimes.  By  putting  the  heater  into  the 
tank,  or  starting  the  injector  or  by  more  careful  firing. 

Q.  49.  Describe  the  principle  upon  which  the  injector 
works. 

A.  49.  The  action  of  the  injector  is  due,  first,  to  the  dif- 
ference between  "Kinetic"  or  moving  energy  and  "Static"  or 
standing  energy;  second,  to  the  fact  that  steam  at  a  pressure 
travels  at  a  tremendous  velocity  and  if  placed  in  contact  with 
a  stream  of  water,  imparts  to  the  latter  much  of  its  velocity 
and  besides  is  condensed  to  water  itself.  By  imparting  this 
velocity  to  the  water  it  gives  it  sufficient  energy  to  throw  open 
the  check  valves  and  enter  the  boiler  against  high  pressure. 

Q.  50.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  lifting  and  a  non- 
lifting  injector? 

A.  50.  A  lifting  injector  will  create  sufficient  vacuum  to 
raise  the  water  from  the  level  of  the  tank.  The  tubes  in  a 
non-lifting  injector  are  shaped  differently  and  will  not  raise 
the  water,  but  merely  force  it  into  the  boiler.  It  is  necessary 
to  place  a  non-lifting  injector  below  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  tank  so  the  water  will  flow  to  it  by  gravity. 

Q.  51.  Will  an  injector  work  with  a  leak  between  the 
injector  and  tank?     Why?     Will  it  prime? 

A.  51.  Not  if  a  bad  leak.  It  will  not  prime  because  the 
air  admitted  through  the  leak  destroys  the  vacuum  necessary 
to  raise  the  water  to  the  injector  level.  A  non-lifting  injector 
will  often  work  as  the  water  will  escape  from  the  leak  instead 
of  air  being  drawn  into  it,  as  with  a  lifting  injector. 

Q.  52.  If  it  primes  well,  but  breaks  when  the  steam  is 
turned  on  wide,  where  would  you  look  for  the  trouble? 

A.  52.  Insufficient  water  supply,  due  to  tank  valve  not 
open,  strainer  stopped  up,  hose  kinked,  injector  tubes  out  of 
line,  limed  up,  or  delivery  tube  cut,  or  wet  steam  from  throttle. 

Q.  53.  If  it  would  not  prime,  where  would  you  expect  to 
to  find  the  trouble"' 

A.  53.  Insufficient  water  supply,  or  priming  valve  out  of 
order.  With  the  lifting  injector  the  trouble  might  be  due  to 
a  leak  between  injector  and  tank. 


EXAMIXATI0N8.  521 

Q.  54.  Will  an  injector  prime  if  the  boiler  check  leaks 
badly  or  if  it  is  stuck  up?  If  the  injector  throttle  leaks 
badly? 

A.  54.     Not  if  either  leak  badly. 

Q.  55.  If  steam  or  water  shows  at  the  overflow  pipe  when 
the  injector  is  not  working,  how  can  you  tell  whether  it  comes 
from  the  boiler  check  or  the  injector  throttle? 

A.  55.  Close  the  main  steam  valve  at  the  fountain.  This 
will  stop  the  leak  if  it  be  from  the  injector  throttle. 

Q.  56.  Will  an  injector  prime  if  primer  valve  leaks?  Will 
that  prevent  its  working? 

A.  56.  The  injector  will  prime  but  not  so  readily  as  with 
priming  valve  in  good  condition.  It  will  not  prevent  its  work- 
ing, but  there  may  be  some  waste  from  the  overflow. 

Q.  57.  Will  an  \njector  work  if  air  cannot  get  into  the 
tank  as  fast  as  the  water  is  taken  out? 

A.  57.     It  will  not. 

Q.  58.  If  you  had  to  take  down  a  tank  hose,  how  would 
you  stop  the  water  from  flowing  out  of  the  tank  that  has 
the  syphon  connections  instead  of  the  old  style  valves? 

A.  58.     Open  the  small  pet  cock  at  the  top  of  the  syphon. 

Q.  59.  Is  any  more  water  used' when  the  engine  foams 
than  when  the  water  is  solid? 

A.  59.  Very  much  more  —  one  cubic  inch  of  water  is  equal 
in  weight  to  one  cubic  foot  of  steam. 

Q.  60.  How  would  you  prevent  injector  feed  pipes  or  tank 
hose  from  freezing  in  winter  when  not  in  use? 

A.  60.  The  steam  valve  should  be  opened  slightly  to  allow 
a  slight  circulation  of  steam  through  the  feed  and  the  branch 
pipes.  The  heater  cock  closed,  and  the  drip  cock  under  the 
boiler  check  or  on  the  branch  pipe  opened  to  insure  circulation 
of  steam  through  the  branch  pipe. 

Q.  61.  How  would  you  prevent  the  overflow  pipe  from 
freezing  with  a  lifting  injector? 

A.  61.  By  keeping  the  overflow  valve  slightly  open  to  per- 
mit some  steam  to  escape  from  the  overflow  pipe. 

Q.  62.     Name  the  various   parts   of  the  injector. 

A.  62.  It  consists  of  the  injector  body  with  a  steam  valve, 
a  steam  nozzle,  a  primer,  a  combining  and  condensing  tube, 
a  delivery  tube,  line  check  valve,  overflow  valve,  and  water 
valve.     A  lifting  injector  has  a  lifting  tube. 

Q.  6.3.     What  may  be  done  if  a  combining  tube  is  obstructed? 

A.  6.3.  Remove  the  steam  valve  bonnet  and  with  a  stiff 
piece  of  wire  force  out  the  obstruction,  or  uncouple  the  de- 
livery pipe  from  the  injector,  unscrew  and  remove  the  tubes, 
then  clear  the  obstruction  and  replace  the  tubes. 


522  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  64.  How  Is  the  greatest  injury  done  to  a  boiler  when 
cleaning  or  knocking,  the  fire? 

A.  64.  By  using  the  blower  excessively,  thus  drawing  cold 
air  through  the  fire-bo.x  and  flues. 

Q.  65.  Why  does  putting  a  large  quantity  of  cold  water  into 
a  boiler  when  the  throttle  is  closed  cause  the  flues  to  leak?  When 
is  this  most  serious? 

A.  65.  When  steam  is  not  being  used  there  is  little  circula 
tion  of  water  in  the  boiler  and  water  entering  the  boiler  at  about 
150  degrees  temperature  is  heavier  than  the  water  in  the  boiler. 
As  the  colder  water  will  go  to  the  bottom,  the  temperature  will 
be  reduced  in  that  part  of  the  boiler,  and  cause  the  flues  to  con- 
tract in  length  as  well  as  in  diameter.  This  will  have  a  tendency 
to  pull  them  out  of  the  sheet,  thereby  loosening  tliem.  After 
the  fire  has  been  knocked  this  tendency  is  much  greater;  hence, 
cold  water  should  never  be  put  into  the  boiler  after  the  fire  is 
knocked  out.  The  boiler  should  always  be  filled  before  the  fire 
is  knocked  out. 

Q.  66.  Is  warm  water  in  the  tank  of  any  advantage  in  mak- 
ing steam  rapidly? 

A.  66.  It  is.  Careful  experiments  have  shown  that  a  loco- 
motive boiler  will  generate  one  per  cent  more  steam  for  every 
eleven  degrees  that  the  tank  water  is  heated.  Thus  heating 
the  water  in  the  tank  from  39  to  94  degrees  would  effect  a  saving 
of  five  per  cent. 

Q.  67.  Then  why  not  heat  the  feed  water  to  the  boiling 
point  (212  degrees?) 

A.  67.  If  the  feed  water  is  heated  much  above  blood  heat 
(about  100  degrees)  it  will  not  condense  enough  steam  in  the 
injectors  to  cause  them  to  work  properly.  Some  injectors  will 
take  hotter  water  than  others.  It  would  also  ruin  the  paint 
and  varnish  on  the  tank. 

Q.  68.  At  200  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch,  what  is  the 
pressure  per  square  foot  on  the  sheets  of  a  boiler? 

A.  68.     About  fifteen  tons. 

Q.  69.  What  is  the  total  pressure  on  the  fire-box  of  a  large 
locomotive? 

A.  69.     Over  three  thousand  tons. 

Q.  70.     Give  a  practical  definition  of  heating  surface. 

A.  70.  The  heating  surface  of  a  boiler  includes  all  parts  of 
the  boiler  that  are  directly  exposed  to  fire  or  heat  from  the  fire 
and  surrounded  by  water. 

Q.  71.  Should  an  engine  be  slipped  to  get  water  out  of  the 
cylinders  or  steam  passages? 

A.  71.  Never.  Open  the  cylinder  cocks  and  start  the  engine 
slowly. 


EXAMINATIONS.  523 

Q.  72.  What  does  it  indicate  when  the  smoke  trails  back 
over  the  train  and  into  the  coaches  after  shutting  off? 

A.  72.  Either  poor  firing,  or  else  a  lack  of  understanding 
between  the  engineer  and  fireman  as  to  where  the  engine  was 
to  be  shut  off. 

Q.  73.  Before  shaking  grates  or  dumping  the  ash-pan,  what 
should  be  observed? 

A.  73.  That  the  locomotive  is  not  passing  over  bridges,  cattle 
guards,  crossings,  switches,  interlocking  fixtures,  or  in  yards. 
Promptly  extinguish  fire  on  the  track  where  ash-pans  are 
cleaned. 

Q.  74.  Which  is  easier  and  more  satisfactory  on  a  long  run, 
to  stop  and  clean  the  fire  if  necessary,  or  to  continue  to  the  end 
of  a  long,  hard  trip  with  a  dirty  fire? 

A.  74.  Stop  and  clean  the  fire  and  thus  save  fuel  and  labor 
for  the  remainder  of  the  trip.  Very  often  an  engine  failure 
will  be  saved  by  so  doing. 

Q.  75.  Should  you  examine  the  flues  to  see  if  they  are 
stopped  up  and  leaking,  and  inspect  the  grate  and  grate  rigging 
carefully  before  leaving  the  engine  at  a  terminal? 

A.  75.  Yes,  so  they  can  be  reported  if  necessary.  Clean  flues 
and  grates  working  well,  make  a  vast  difference  in  the  success 
of  a  fireman.  By  keeping  the  flues  and  grates  in  proper  con- 
dition engine  failures  can  be  avoided. 

Q.  76.  How  should  cab  lamps,  signal  lamps,  oil  cans  and 
lanterns  be  cared  for? 

A.  76.  They  should  all  be  kept  clean,  free  from  leaks  and 
filled  before  starting  any  trip. 

Q.  77.  About  how  many  drops  are  there  in  a  pint  of  valve 
oil  when  fed  through  a  lubricator? 

A.  77.     About  six  thousand  drops. 

Q.  78.  Assuming  that  five  drops  per  minute  are  fed  to  each 
of  two  valves  and  one  drop  per  minute  to  the  air  pump,  how 
many  hours  would  be  required  to  feed  one  pint  of  valve  oil? 

A.  78.     About  nine  hours. 

Q.  79.  Assuming  that  the  engine  is  running  twenty  miles 
per  hour,  how  many  miles  per  pint  would  be  run? 

A.  79.    About  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  per  pint. 

Q.  80.  How  many  drops  per  minute  should  ordinarily  be 
fed? 

A.  80.  This  will  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  locomotive 
and  the  work  to  be  done.  One  drop  per  minute  for  each  cylinder, 
and  one  drop  for  the  air  pump  every  two  or  three  minutes, 
is  usually  sufficient  on  small  yard  engines.  This  depends  on 
the  condition  of  the  pump  and  the  service  being  performed. 
Four  or  five  drops  per  minute  should  be  fed  large  engines  in 
slow  freight  service,  and  from  five  to  seven  drops  per  minute 


524  EXAMINATIONS. 

for  large  engines  in  heavy  fast  passenger  service.  Wtiere  the 
brake  pipe  is  in  moderately  good  condition,  air  pumps  in  freight 
service  can  usually  be  run  with  one  or  two  drops  per  minute 
when  handling  long  trains  of  cars  equipped  with  air  brakes. 

Q.  81.  Will  any  bad  results  ensue  from  filling  the  lubricator 
full  of  cold  oil? 

A.  81.  Yes,  when  the  oil  becomes  hot  it  will  expand  and  may 
bulge  or  burst  the  lubricator. 

Q.  82.  If  a  sight  feed  gets  stopped  up,  how  could  you  clean 
it  out? 

A.  82.  Close  the  water  valve  and  the  regulating  valves  to 
the  other  feeds.  Open  the  drain  cock,  draw  out  a  small  quantity 
of  water  so  as  to  bring  the  oil  in  the  top  part  of  lubricator  below 
the  top  end  of  oil  pipe  leading  to  the  feed  arm,  then  open  wide 
the  regulating  valve  to  the  feed  which  is  stopped  up.  The  pres- 
sure from  the  equalizing  tube  will  force  the  obstacle  out  of 
the  feed  nozzle  and  up  into  the  body  of  the  lubricator.  Close 
this  regulating  valve  until  the  feed  glass  fills  with  water  and 
then  open  water  valve  and  start  feeds. 

Q.  83.     How  would  you  clean  out  chokes? 

A.  83.  Shut  off  boiler  pressure  and  condenser  valve,  remove 
feed  valve  bonnet  and  open  main  throttle  valve.  The  steam 
from  the  steam  chest  will  blow  back  through  the  choke  plug, 
clearing  it. 

Q.  84.     What  is  superheated  steam? 

A.  84.  It  is  the  saturated  steam  separated  from  the  water 
from  which  it  is  generated  by  adding  more  heat,  increasing  its 
temperature  from  100  to  250  degrees  F.  above  saturated  steam 
temperature. 

Q.  85.  What  is  the  advantage  of  superheating  or  increasing 
the  temperature  of  the  steam? 

A.  85.  The  increase  of  temperature  in  superheated  steam 
augments  its  volume  and  all  the  moisture  which  is  sure  to  be 
contained  in  saturated  steam,  and  any  particles  of  water  which 
may  have  been  entrained  as  the  steam  entered  the  throttle 
valve  are  evaporated.  This  results  in  a  reduced  steam  consump- 
tion, a  saving  in  coal  and  water,  and  increased  boiler  capacity. 

Q.  86.  How  is  the  increased  temperature  obtained  by  the 
use  of  the  superheater? 

A.  86.  The  saturated  steam  is  admitted  into  a  partitioned 
receiver  which  has  a  number  of  li4-inch  pipes  attached  to  it. 
These  are  located  in  and  extend  nearly  the  full  length  of  the 
large  flues.  The  steam  in  passing  through  these  li^-inch  pipes 
on  its  way  back  to  the  receiver  absorbs  the  heat  from  the  gases 
passing  through  the  large  tnbes,  causing  its  temperature  to 
rise — to  become  superheated. 


EXAMINATIONS.  525 

Q.  87.  How  much  is  the  volume  of  steam  increased  by  super- 
heating? 

A.  87.  At  temperatures  ordinarily  used  in  locomotive  prac- 
tice, for  each  100  degrees  of  superheat  added  to  saturated 
steam,  the  volume  of  a  given  w^eight  is  increased  approximately 
from  sixteen  to  seventeen  per  cent. 

Q.  88.  Why  is  the  superheated  steam  so  much  more  eco- 
nomical on  coal  and  water  than  the  saturated  steam? 

A.  88.  By  superheating,  the  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  is  from  about  15  to  35  per  cent  for  superheated 
steam  receiving  150  to  250  degrees  Fahrenheit  of  superheat. 
If  less  water  has  to  be  evaporated  to  do  a  given  amount  of  work, 
it  follows  that  less  coal  has  to  be  used. 

Q.  89.  Which  is  the  better  practice,  to  close  the  feed  valves 
or  water  valve  while  waiting  on  sidings,  etc.? 

A.  89.  Close  the  feed  valves.  There  may  be  a  leak  in  the 
water  valve. 

Q.  90.  How  can  you  tell  if  equalizer  tubes  become  stopped 
up  or  broken? 

A.  90.  The  stopping  of  the  tubes  would  destroy  the  equaliza- 
tion and  when  the  steam  chest  pressure  was  less  than  the  boiler 
pressure  the  feed  would  work  too  fast  and  instead  of  forming 
into  drops  the  oil  would  enter  the  feed  glass  in  a  stream;  if 
broken  the  lubricator  could  not  be  used  and  the  auxiliary  oilers 
would  necessarily  have  to  be  used  to  lubricate  the  cylinders. 

AIR  BRAKE  QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS.  SECOND  SERIES 

Q.  1.     Explain  how  an  air  pump  should  be  started. 

A.  1.  The  pump  should  be  started  slowly,  with  the  drain 
cocks  open  to  permit  the  condensation  to  be  drained  off.  Work 
the  pump  slowly  until  about  forty  pounds  pressure  has  ac- 
cumulated in  the  main  reservoir,  to  cushion  the  steam  and 
air  piston  of  the  pump.  After  the  pump  is  warm,  close  the 
drain  cocks  and  open  the  throttle  wide  enough  to  run  the  pump 
at  the  proper  speed.  Start  the  lubricator  feeding  freely  until 
eight  or  ten  drops  have  passed  to  the  pump,  and  then  reduce 
the  feed  to  an  amount  sufficient  for  proper  lubrication. 

Q.  2.  What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used  to  lubricate  both 
the  steam  and  air  cylinders  of  the  pump? 

A.  2.     Valve  oil. 

Q.  3.  Where  does  the  main  reservoir  pressure  begin  and 
end? 

A.  3.  Begins  at  the  discharge  valves  in  the  pump  and  ends 
at  the  engineer's  brake  valve.   , 

Q.  4.     Where  does  the  brake  pipe  pressure  begin  and  end? 

A.  4.     Begins  at  the  feed  valve  and  ends  at  the  brake  pipe 


526  EXAMINATIONS. 

side  of  the  triple  piston,  conductor's  valve  and  at  the  rear  angle 
cock. 

Q.  5.     What  Is  excess  pressure,  and  where  is  it  carried? 

A.  5.  Excess  pressure  is  the  pressure  above  that  in  the  brake 
pipe  and  is  carried  in  the  main  reservoir. 

Q.  6.     Why  is  excess  pressure  necessary? 

A.  6.  To  promptly  release  brakes  and  quickly  recharge  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs.  Also  to  operate  various  devices,  such  as, 
water  scoop,  sanders  and  bell  ringer  without  danger  of  reducing 
brake  pipe  pressure  and  applying  the  brakes. 

Q.  7.     How  is  the  excess  pressure  regulated? 

A.  7.     By  the  pump  governor. 

Q.  8.  Name  the  different  parts  of  the  air  brake  as  applied 
to  a  car. 

A.  8.  Triple  valve,  auxiliary  reservoir,  brake  cylinder,  brake 
pipe,  angle  cocks,  retaining  valve  and  cut-out  cock. 

Q.  9.     What  is  the  duty  of  the  triple  valve? 

A.  9.  The  triple  valve  performs  three  duties:  first,  to  charge 
the  auxiliary  reservoir;  second,  to  apply  the  brakes;  and  third, 
to  release  the  brakes. 

Q.  10.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  auxiliary  reservoir? 

A.  10.  The  function  of  the  auxiliary  reservoir  is  to  store 
the  air  to  supply  to  the  brake  cylinders  during  the  application 
of  the  brakes.  Each  car,  therefore,  carries  its  own  brake 
power. 

Q.  11.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  brake  cylinder? 

A.  11.  The  brake  cylinder  is  that  part  of  the  air  brake  equip- 
ment in  which  the  force  contained  in  the  compressed  air  is 
transformed  into  a  mechanical  force  which  is  transmitted 
through  a  suitable  combination  of  rods  and  levers*  to  the  brake 
shoes  and  applies  them  to  the  wheels. 

Q.  12.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  brake  pipe  and  angle 
cocks? 

A.  12.  The  brake  pipe  acts  as  a  channel  to  convey  the  air 
from  the  engineer's  brake  valve  to  the  locomotive  and  car 
brakes,  and  is  the  medium  through  which  the  engineer  controls 
the  locomotive  and  train  brakes  through  the  operation  of  the 
engineer's  brake  valves.  Angle  cocks  are  for  the  purpose  of 
opening  and  closing  the  ends  of  the  brake  pipe. 

Q.  13.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  cut-out  cock? 

A.  13.  To  cut  off  any  brake  which  is  not  in  operating  con- 
dition from  the  rest  of  the  brake  system. 

Q.  14.     How  is  a  brake  cut  out? 

A.  14.  Close  the  cut-out  cock  in  the  cross-over  pipe  and 
bleed  the  auxiliary  reservoir. 

Q.  15.     How   would   you  bleed   an   auxiliary   reservoir? 

A.  15.    By  opening  the  release  valve  on  the  reservoir. 


EXAMINATIONS.  527 


OIL  BURNING  LOCOMOTIVES* 

Q.  1.  What  are  the  fireman's  duties  on  arrival  at  the  engine- 
house  previous  to  going  out  on  an  oil  burning  locomotive? 

A.  1.  The  fireman  should  observe  the  condition  of  draft 
pans  and  arch,  of  burner  and  dampers;  try  the  regulating  valve, 
and  see  that  the  burner  is  delivering  fuel  oil  properly  to  the 
fire.  He  should  see  that  the  fuel  oil  is  heated  to  a  proper  tem- 
perature; that  the  oil  heaters  are  in  working  order,  and  that 
there  is  a  proper  supply  of  fuel  oil,  sand  and  water  on  hand, 
as  well  as  the  necessary  tools  for  handling  an  oil  fire.  He  should  ^ 
also  perform  such  other  duties  on  the  engine  as  may  be  required 
of  him. 

Q.  2.     How  warm  should  the  oil  be  at  all  times  in  the  tank? 

A.  2.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  the  oil  is  heated 
to  such  a  temperature  that  the  hand  can  be  held  on  the  tank,, 
or  to  about  110  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Q.  3.     If  the  oil  is  too  warm,  what  happens? 

A.  3.  Some  of  the  qualities  of  the  oil  are  lost  by  keeping 
it  too  warm,  and  the  burner  does  not  work  so  well  and  will 
make  it  more  difficult  to  operate.  If  the  oil  is  too  warm  it  will 
give  off  too  much  gas  which  is  liable  to  cause  an  explosion  in 
the  oil  tank. 

Q.  4.  What  tools  are  necessary  for  firing  purposes  on  an 
oil  burning  locomotive? 

A.  4.  The  necessary  tools  include  a  sand  horn,  brick  hook, 
and  a  small  iron  bar  for  cleaning  carbon  from  the  mouth  of  the 
burner. 

Q.  5.  What  is  liable  to  happen  if  the  heater  valve  is  open 
too  much? 

A.  5.  It  is  very  apt  to  burst  the  heater  hose,  as  well  as  to 
heat  the  oil  to  too  high  a  temperature,  placing  an  unnecessary 
strain  on  all  the  heater  connections,  causing  them  to  leak. 

Q.  6.  What  should  be  done  on  approaching  stations  where 
additional  supply  of  fuel  oil  is  to  be  taken? 

A.  6.  Shut  off  the  fire,  close  safety  and  main  oil  valves  and 
see  that  there  are  no  lamps  or  lights  on  the  tender. 

Q.  7.  What  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  lamps, 
torches  or  lanterns  about  oil  tanks  whether  hot  or  cold? 

A.  7.  Do  not  carry,  nor  permit  anyone  to  carry  oil  lamps 
or  oil  torches  within  a  distance  of  ten  feet  of  the  tank  opening. 
Pocket  flash  lights  or  incandescent  lamps  only  should  be  used 
around  oil  tank  manhole  when  taking  oil. 


*The   reader   Is   referred   to   the   chapter  herein   devoted   to   this 
subject. 


528  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  8.  How  can  oil  in  the  tank  be  measured  without  taking 
a  light  to  the  manhole? 

A.  8.  By  the  use  of  the  stick  or  rod  made  for  that  purpose, 
carrying  it  to  the  light  to  find  the  number  of  inches  of  oil  in 
the  tank. 

Q.  9.  What  precautions  must  be  taken  before  entering  tanks 
that  have  been  used  for  oil  to  clean  or  make  repairs? 

A.  9.  Oil  tanks  should  not  be  entered  until  thoroughly 
steamed  and  cooled.  For  safety  they  should  be  steamed  from 
six  to  nine  hours. 

Q.  10.  How  should  the  fire  be  lighted  in  an  oil-burning 
locomotive? 

A.  10.  See  that  no  one  is  working  under  the  engine,  that 
the  boiler  is  properly  filled  with  water  and  that  it  will  flow 
through  the  gauge  cocks,  and  that  there  is  no  accumulation 
of  oil  in  the  ash-pan  or  fire-box,  or  existing  leaks  throughout. 
Steam  connection  can  be  made  to  the  three-way  cock  on  the 
smoke  arch  which  will  act  as  blower  and  atomizer.  If  there 
are  20  or  30  pounds  of  steam  in  the  boiler  it  can  be  operated 
with  its  own  blower.  See  that  the  front  of  the  fire-box  is  free 
from  carbon  or  anything  that  would  obstruct  it  from  burning; 
it  must  have  free  passage  so  oil  can  get  to  burner.  Open  the 
front  damper,  put  on  the  blower  strong  enough  to  make  the  nec- 
essary draft,  open  the  atomizer  valve  long  enough  to  blow  out 
any  water  which  might  be  in  steam  pipe  or  burner;  next  close 
the  valve  and  throw  a  bunch  of  lighted  old  waste  in  front  of 
the  burner,  then  open  the  atomizer  sufficiently  to  carry  oil 
to  the  waste  and  open  the  regulator  slowly  until  the  oil  is 
known  to  be  ignited  —  this  you  can  see  through  the  fire-box 
door.  Be  sure  that  no  oil  is  wasting  below  the  burner  or  an 
explosion  may  result. 

Q.  11.  Should  the  fire  go  out  and  it  is  desired  to  rekindle 
it  while  bricks  are  hot,  is  it  safe  to  depend  on  the  hot  bricks 
to  ignite  the  oil  without  the  use  of  lighted  waste? 

A.  11.  Xo,  always  use  waste  in  rekindling  the  fire  as  the 
bricks  are  not  very  reliable  and  apt  to  do  damage  from  ex- 
plosive gases  formed. 

Q.  12.  "What  is  termed  an  atomizer,  and  what  does  it 
perform  ? 

A.  12.  The  atomizer  is  a  casting  divided  into  two  long 
ports,  with  an  extension  lip.  The  upper  port  is  for  oil  and 
the  lower  one  for  steam.  The  lip  aids  the  steam  in  atomizing 
and  spreading  the  oil,  which,  when  properly  mingled  with  the 
air  and  ignited,  will  produce  combustion.  The  atomizer  is 
located  just  under  the  mud  ring,  pointed  a  little  upward,  so  the 
stream  of  oil  and  spray  of  steam  will  strike  the  opposite  wall 


EXAMINATIONS.  529 

a  few  inches  above  the  bottom  if  it  were  to  pass  clear  across 
the  box. 

Q.  13.  In  starting  or  closing  the  throttle  of  the  locomotive, 
how  should  the  fireman  regulate  the  fire,  in  advance  or  after 
the  action  of  the  engineer? 

A.  13.  In  starting  an  oil-burning  engine,  bring  the  oil  up 
gradually  as  the  throttle  is  opened,  and  keep  the  movement 
and  amount  of  oil  slightly  in  advance  of  the  action  of  the 
engineer,  so  as  to  prevent  the  inrush  of  cold  air  as  the  engine 
is  working,  which  would  result  in  injury  to  the  fire-box  and 
flues.  Reduce  the  fire  very  slightly  in  advance  of  closing  the 
throttle.  This  will  prevent  the  engine  from  popping  and  black 
smoke  trailing  over  the  train. 

Q.  14.  Is  it  necessary  that  the  engineer  and  fireman  on 
an  oil-burning  locomotive  work  in  perfect  harmony  and  advise 
each  other  of  intended  action  at  every  change  of  conditions? 

A.  14.  Yes,  they  should  work  in  harmony  with  one  another 
and  while  the  fireman  should  watch  every  move  the  engineer 
makes  it  is  also  the  duty  of  the  engineer  to  advise  the  fireman, 
of  every  change  of  the  throttle  so  that  he  can  operate  his 
valves  according  therewith  and  thus  save  fuel,  and  avoid 
black  smoke. 

Q.  15.  What  is  the  effect  of  forcing  the  fire  on  an  oil-burn- 
ing locomotive? 

A.  15.  It  will  cause  the  flues  to  leak.  Always  keep  ah  even 
temperature  in  the  fire-box. 

Q.  16.  Is  a  careful  regulation  of  steam  and  oil  valves  and 
dampers  necessary  to  obtain  the  most  economical  results? 

A.  16.  Yes,  the  firing  valve  should  be  opened  sufficiently  to 
make  it  certain  that  enough  oil  is  being  fed  to  produce  a  good 
fire,  but  not  enough  to  cause  a  waste  of  oil  or  a  great  volume 
of  black  smoke. 

Q.  17.  How  can  you  judge  whether  the  combustion  is  good 
or  bad,  so  the  valve  may  be  regulated  accordingly? 

A.  17.  When  the  fire  is  a  dull  red  color  it  indicates  that 
the  temperature  is  less  than  one  thousand  degi'ees,  combustion 
is  incomplete  and  dense  black  smoke  will  be  emitted  from 
the  stack.  When  the  fire  is  a  bright  red  color,  it  indicates 
that  the  temperature  is  more  than  eighteen  hundred  degrees, 
combustion  is  very  good  and  no  smoke  will  issue  from  the 
stack. 

Q.  18.  How  should  the  flues  be  cleaned  from  soot  when 
running,  and  about  how  often  is  this  necessary? 

A.  18.  A  small  quantity  of  sand  should  be  placed  in  an 
elbow-shaped  funnel,  and  inserted  through  an  aperture  pro- 
vided in  the  fire-door;  while  engine  is  working  hard,  the  ex- 
haust drawing  the  sand  through  the  flues,  carries  with  it  the 


530  EXAMINATIONS. 

accretions  of  soot,  discharging  them  from  the  stack.  The  flues 
should  be  cleaned  of  soot  after  leaving  terminals,  or  after  the 
engine  has  been  standing  for  some  time,  and  as  often  as  found 
necessary  to  aid  the  engine  in  steaming.  Just  prior  to  enter- 
ing points  where  engine  is  to  be  i)ut  in  roundhouse  or  other- 
wise detained,  attention  should  be  given  the  flues  in  order 
to  leave  them  clean,  as  this  will  aid  in  putting  the  engine  under 
steam  with  little  delay  where  the  blower  alone  is  to  be  relied 
on  for  draft. 

Q.  19.  Is  the  injudicious  use  of  the  blower  particularly 
injurious  on  an  oil-burning  locomotive? 

A.  19.  Yes,  the  frequent  use  of  the  blower  is  injurious  to  a 
boiler  and  the  cold  air  drawn  in  through  the  fire-box  injures 
the  sheets  and  flues  and  will  cause  them  to  leak. 

Q.  20.  Is  the  blower  more  injurious  when  a  light  smoke  is 
emitting  from  the  stack  or  when  a  dense  black  smoke  is 
emitting? 

A.  20.  It  is  more  injurious  when  a  light  smoke  is  emitted 
from  the  stack. 

Q.  21.  In  drifting  down  long  grades,  should  the  fire  be  shut 
off  or  burned  lightly?    Why? 

A.  21.  The  fire  should  be  burning  lightly,  yet  it  should  not 
be  permitted  to  get  too  low,  allowing  the  fire-box  to  lose  its 
temperature  and  thus  contracting  the  flues  and  causing  them 
to  leak. 

Q.  22.     How  should  the  fire  be  handled  when  switching? 

A.  22.  The  fire  must  be  regulated  according  to  the  work 
the  engine  performs  on  each  move,  and  to  protect  against  the 
possibility  of  the  fire  being  drawn  out  by  the  exhaust. 

Q.  23.     Would  not  some  fuel  be  wasted  in  this  way? 

A.  23.  Very  little  will  be  wasted  if  the  fireman  watches 
closely,  when  switching  as  well  as  when  running. 

Q.  24.  How  should  the  fire  be  handled  when  leaving  sta- 
tions? 

A.  24.  It  should  be  burning  brightly  and  suflEiciently  strong 
to  keep  the  draft  from  putting  it  out  when  the  throttle  is 
opened.  A  little  smoke  should  show  up  at  the  stack,  indicating 
that  the  fire  was  being  forced  a  little  ahead  of  the  working 
of  the  engine. 

Q.  25.  Which  is  desirable,  to  use  as  much  or  as  little  steam 
jet  atomizer  as  possible? 

A.  25.     Use  as  little  atomizer  as  possible  at  all  times. 

Q.  26.  What  is  the  result  of  too  little  steam  jet  atomizer 
"When  standing  at  stations  or  when  the  engine  is  working 
light? 

A.  26.  The  oil  will  not  be  carried  far  enough  into  the  fire- 
box or  arch  and  not  properly  atomized  and  the  fire  is  very 


EXAMINATIOJSfS.  531 


apt  to  go  out.  The  oil  will  drop  from  the  mouth  of  the  burner 
into  the  draft  pan  to  the  gi'ound  and  is  liable  to  start  a  fire 
under  the  engine. 

Q.  27.  If  too  much  steam  jet  atomizer  is  used  with  a  light 
fire? 

A.  27.  A  disagreeable  gas  will  be  formed,  causing  the  fire 
to  burn  with  a  succession  of  light  explosions  and  kicks.  It 
will  use  too  much  steam  and  reduce  the  temperature  of  the 
fire-box. 

Q.  28.  When  the  fire  kicks  and  smokes,  what  should  be 
done? 

A.  28.  Adjust  the  atomizer.  If  this  does  not  eliminate  the 
trouble,  start  the  heater,  as  the  oil  may  be  too  cold  to  fiow 
freely.  Water  being  mixed  with  the  oil  will  also  cause  the 
fire  to  kick  and  smoke.  In  this  case  drain  the  water  out  of  the 
oil  tank  immediately. 

Q.  29.  How  should  the  dampers  be  used  on  an  oil-burning 
locomotive? 

A.  29.  They  should  be  opened  just  enough  to  admit  suffi- 
cient air  to  produce  perfect  combustion,  but  not  enough  to 
cool  the  fire-box.  When  drifting  they  should  be  closed  tO' 
prevent  cold  air  being  drawn  in,  causing  flues  and  stay-bolts 
to  leak. 

Q.  30.  About  how  much  smoke  do  you  consider  an  oil- 
burning  locomotive  should  make  under  adverse  conditions, 
when  the  engine  is  steaming  weak,  but  is  being  crowded  by 
the  engineer? 

A.  30.     No  more  than  when  an  engine  is  working  ordinarily. 

Q.  31.  What  color  is  most  desirable  at  peep-holes  in  the 
fire-box  ? 

A.  31.     A  bright  red  color  is  most  desirable. 

Q.  32.     What  will  produce  the  bright  red  color? 

A.  32.  Feeding  only  the  amount  of  oil  that  is  properly 
burned  and  properly  manipulating  the  regulating  valves,  with 
no  leaks  and  fire-box  in  good  condition. 

Q.  33.     How  does  the  water  in  the  oil  affect  the  fire? 

A.  33.  It  will  produce  popping  or  kicking  with  the  fire  in 
the  fire-box.  At  times  the  fire  will  almost  go  out  entirely  and 
then  suddenly  fiash  up  as  the  oil  appears  at  the  burner,  and 
the  water  disappears.  Water  in  the  oil  produces  a  very 
dangerous  condition  and  should  be  prevented  by  immediately 
draining  it  from  the  oil  tank. 

Q.  34.  Do  you  consider  it  advisable  to  keep  the  burners 
clean,  and  how  often? 

A.  34.  When  furnished  with  steam  blow-out  pipes,  the 
burners  should  be  blown  out  before  commencing  trip  so  they 
will  distribute  oil  evenly  to  each  side  of  the  fire-box. 


632  EXAMINATIONS. 


Q.  35.  What  position  should  burner  be  with  reference  to 
level  and  in  line  with  center  of  fire-box? 

A.  35.  It  is  very  necessary  that  burners  be  level  and  throw 
flames  just  to  clear  floor  of  arch  that  the  full  benefit  of  the 
heating  surface  may  be  derived,  as  the  draft  has  a  great 
tendency  to  elevate  flames  at  opposite  end  of  the  fire-box. 

Q.  36.  Are  you  aware  that  in  course  of  time  the  atomizer 
port  will  become  worn  too  large  and  will  discharge  too  large 
a  volume  of  steam  to  properly  atomize,  and  the  remedy? 

A.  36.  Yes.  In  order  that  the  oil  may  be  atomized  prop- 
erly, and  not  flow  out  in  quantities  against  flash  walls  before 
it  has  time  to  ignite,  the  lip  or  bushing  should  be  properly  reg- 
ulated so  the  steam  will  be  restricted  at  the  nozzle  and  escape 
with  a  bursting  effect. 

Q.  37.  What  is  the  real  object  of  having  the  fire-box  lined 
with  bricks,  and  will  engine  steam  without  them? 

A.  37.  The  engine  wiU  not  steam  as  well  without,  as  with 
brick.  The  sheets  being  in  contact  with  water  are  too  cold 
to  flash  the  oil  readily.  Hence  the  use  of  the  "flash  wall," 
which,  heated  to  a  very  high  temperature,  very  materially  aids 
combustion. 

Q.  38.  Do  you  consider  it  your  duty  to  keep  close  inspection 
of  brick  work  as  to  need  of  repairs,  such  as  air  entering  be- 
tween brick  and  side  sheets? 

A.  38.  Yes.  Plaster  should  be  kept  between  walls  and 
sheets  to  prevent  the  cold  air  from  being  drawn  in. 

Q.  39.  Will  engine  steam  if  brick  falls  in  front  of  burners 
or  in  path  of  flame,  and  what  may  be  done? 

A.  39.  No.  The  brick  should  be  removed  by  pulling  them 
out  with  a  brick  rod  or  hook  through  damper  of  draft-pan. 

Q.  40.  Where  engine  is  equipped  with  an  oil-reheated  or  oil 
line,  do  you  consider  it  a  help  to  engine's  steaming  qualities 
•when  used? 

A.  40.     Yes.    This  heater  should  be  used  at  all  times. 

Q.  41.  Why  use  second  heater?  Why  not  heat  it  to  a  high 
temperature  in  oil  tank  with  oil  heater? 

A.  41.  Too  much  gas  generates.  Continually  boiling  the 
oil  destroys  some  of  the  higher  qualities  and  it  is  more  difficult 
to  control  the  flow  through  regulation  valve. 

Q.  42.  Do  you  consider  a  vent  hole  in  oil  tank  advisable, 
and  why? 

A.  42.  I  do.  To  permit  the  gas  which  accumulates  to 
escape  and  to  admit  air  so  the  oil  will  flow  freely. 

Q.  43.  Do  you  inspect  your  oil  pipes  and  report  all  leaks? 
What  other  bad  effect  has  a  pipe  leak  aside  from  waste  of  oil? 

a;  43.  Yes.  A  leak  in  the  pipe  will  cause  oil  to  feed 
irregularly. 


EXAMINATIONS.  533 

Q.  44.  Are  you  aware  that  keeping  the  flues  clean  is  the 
greatest  one  thing  that  you  can  do  in  regard  to  fuel  economy 
and  how  often  should  they  be  cleaned? 

A.  44.  Yes.  At  least  every  ten  miles  if  the  engine  has 
to  be  smoked  hard. 

Q.  45.  Do  you  know  that  the  engine  should  be  working 
hard  and  at  a  speed  not  less  than  20  miles  per  hour  when  sand- 
ing flues  to  avoid  the  sand  falling  to  floor  of  the  fire-box  and 
accumulating  in  front  of  them? 

A.  45.     Yes. 

Q.  46.  Do  you  realize  that  on  first  closing  throttle  you 
should  not  adjust  fire  too  low?    Explain  best  method. 

A.  46.  Yes.  The  steam  pressure  should  be  allowed  to 
fall  back  some  fifteen  pounds  before  the  throttle  is  closed,  and 
when  closed  a  good  fire  should  be  left  in  the  box,  and  allowed 
to  cool  gradually  to  avoid  leaky  flues,  broken  stay-bolts  and 
cracked  sheets,  all  of  which  are  caused  by  a  sudden  fall  of 
temperature. 

Q.  47.     How  is  the  flow  of  oil  controlled? 

A.  47.     By  valves  in  tank  and  pipe  connections. 

Q.  48.     Name  these  valves,  their  location  and  purpose. 

A.  48.  The  safety  valve,  the  main  oil  valve  and  firing 
valve.  The  safety  valve,  controls  the  flow  of  oil  from  the 
fuel  oil  tank  through  an  opening  in  the  bottom  sheet  of  tank 
to  pipes  leading  to  burners.  This  valve  is  forced  to  its  seat 
by  a  heavy  spring  and  held  off  its  seat  by  a  key  in  the  upright 
rod  extending  above  the  top  of  tank.  A  rope  or  chain  is  attached 
to  this  key  and  also  to  the  cab  to  cause  the  pin  in  rod  to  be 
pulled  in  case^of  a  separation  between  engine  and  tank,  and 
permit  the  valve  to  be  seated  by  its  spring  and  avoid  a  waste 
of  oil.  The  main  oil  valve  is  situated  in  oil  pipe  under  deck 
leading  to  burner,  usually  of  the  plug-cock  pattern  connected 
by  bell  crank  and  this  connected  to  some  part  of  the  engine 
by  chain,  in  which  case  it  also  acts  as  a  safety  valve  in  case 
of  separation  between  engine  and  tender.  In  other  cases  it 
is  connected  by  an  operating  rod  extending  above  deck  of 
tender,  and  in  case  of  safety  valve's  failure  it  can  be  operated 
by  hand  to  shut  off  the  flow  of  oil.  The  firing  valve  is  usually 
situated  between  heater  box  and  burner  and  regulates  the 
flow  of  oil  desired  to  reach  the  fire.  It  has  an  upright  rod 
extending  into  cab,  where  it  is  provided  with  a  handle  or 
lever  in  position  to  be  handled  conveniently  by  fireman  when 
seated  in  cab. 

Q.  49.  When  shutting  out  fire,  which  valve  should  be  closed 
first?     Why? 

A.  49.  The  safety  valve.  So  the  oil  in  the  pipe  may  be 
consumed  and  to  see  that  this  valve  is  in  working  order. 


534  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  50.  Should  safety  valve  fail  to  shut  off  the  flow  of 
oil  in  such  cases,  would  it  be  safe  to  rely  on  the  firing  valve 
to  shut  off  the  fire? 

A.  50.     It  would  not.    Main  valve  should  then  be  closed. 

Q.  51.  Should  the  firing  valve  be  depended  upon  to  shut 
off  the  fire  at  any  time?    Why? 

A.  51.  No.  This  valve  leaks  frequently,  owing  to  its 
being  constantly  in  use,  and  while  in  use  the  trouble  is  not 
detected,  and  besides  there  is  always  danger  'of  the  handles 
being  moved  by  workmen  or  others  about  the  cab. 

Q.  52.     What  is  a  heater  box? 

A.  52.  An  apparatus  having  two  passages.  One  for  steam 
passing  from  boiler  to  heater  pipes  in  tank,  and  the  other 
for  oil  from  tank  before  it  is  delivered  to  burner.  The  purpose 
of  the  heater-box  is  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  oil  before 
reaching  the  burner  to  a  much  higher  temperature  than  that 
in  the  tank. 

Q.  53.  In  the  event  of  the  heater  pipes  or  connections 
becoming  defective,  how  could  the  oil  be  heated  in  tank? 

A.  53.  By  closing  the  firing  valve,  closing  the  valve  on 
heater  pipe  and  opening  valve  on  heater  box.  Steam  from 
heater  throttle  can  be  passed  directly  through  the  oil  feed 
pipe  to  the  fuel  supply. 

Q.  54.  In  the  event  of  an  objectionable  quantity  of  water  in 
oil,  how  can  it  be  removed? 

A.  54.  Some  tanks  are  provided  with  drain  pipes  for  this 
purpose,  but  on  tanks  where  there  are  none,  the  feed  hose  or 
pipe  between  engine  and  tank  can  be  disconnected  and  used 
as  a  drain  to  fuel  oil  tank. 

Q.  55.  What  effect  has  leaks  between  fuel  tank  and  firing 
valve? 

A.  55.    None  other  than  a  waste  of  oil. 

Q.  56.  What  effect  has  leaks  between  firing  valve  and 
burner? 

A.  56.  It  interferes  very  materially  with  the  engine's  steam- 
ing by  admitting  air  when  using  considerable  steam  atomizer 
which  causes  an  irregular  oil  feed.  There  is  also  a  loss  of 
oil  while  fire  is  burning  low,  and  but  little  steam  atomizer  is 
being  used. 

Q.  57.  What  action  of  the  fire  would  indicate  leaks  in 
pipes  between  firing  valve  and  burner? 

A.  57.  Smoke  at  stack  will  show  when  fuel  feeding  is 
irregular  and  the  fire-box  will  give  off  sounds  similar  to 
feeble  explosions. 

Q.  58.  What  would  you  consider  the  proper  adjustment 
of  burner? 


EXAMINATIONS.  535 

A.  58.  When  oil  is  delivered  from  the  burner  to  flash 
wall  without  striking  arch,  side  walls,  or  floor  brick. 

Q.  59.  In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  fire  up  an  oil  burn- 
ing engine  with  wood,  what  parts  should  be  given  particular 
attention? 

A.  59.  The  brick  work.  Wood  must  be  placed  in  the  fire- 
box with  great  care  so  as  not  to  damage  or  displace  the  brick 
work.  The  brick  work  should  be  protected  by  placing  brick 
over  that  portion  of  the  burner  extending  to  fire-box  ahead  of 
mud  ring.  The  wood  should  also  be  arranged  in  the  fire-box 
to  prevent  any  great  amount  of  heat  from  reaching  the  burner 
and  melting  nozzle  of  same. 

Q.  60.  In  case  of  sudden  drop  in  steam  pressure,  what 
might  be  the  cause? 

A.  60.  Occasionally  pieces  of  brick  will  fall  down  and 
lodge  in  front  of  the  burner  which  will  interfere  with  the 
flow  of  oil:  the  petticoat  pipe  may  be  loose  and  out  of  line, 
or  perhaps  the  dampers  may  have  fallen  shut. 

Q.  61.  In  case  brick  has  fallen  in  front  of  burner  how  can 
they   be  removed? 

A.  61.  They  can  usually  be  forced  out  through  the  vent 
openings  by  a  hook  provided  for  that  purpose.  If  this  cannot 
be  done,  they  should  be  thrown  against  the  blast  wall  in  order  to 
get  them  as  far  as  possible  out  of  the  course  of  the  fuel 
feed. 

Q.  62.  In  case  a  petticoat  pipe  becomes  deranged,  what 
can  be  done? 

A.  62.  If  it  cannot  be  put  back  in  proper  position,  remove 
it  altogether. 

Q.  63.  Will  a  corroded  burner  mouth  prevent  the  proper 
delivery  of  fuel  to  fire? 

A.  63.     It  will. 

Q.  64.     What  causes  the  mouth  of  burner  to  corrode? 

A.  64.     The  asphaltum  and  sand  in  the  oil. 

Q.  65.     How  can  this  be  removed  on  the  road? 

A.  65.  With  a  pointed  hook  or  rod  that  can  be  inserted 
into  the  mouth  of  the  burner. 

Q.  66.  Why  should  a  fuel  oil  tank  not  be  filled  to  its  hold- 
ing capacity? 

A.  66.  The  oil  will  expand  and  overflow  when  the  heater  is 
applied. 

Q.  67.  In  case  of  derailment  or  other  accident  that  might 
cause  the  fireman  to  desert  his  position  in  cab,  what  should  he 
do? 

A.  67.  Shut  off  the  oil  feed  from  the  tank  by  pulling  key 
out  of  safety  valve  rod. 


536  EXAMINATIONS. 


QUESTIONS  AND  ANSWERS.      THIRD    SERIES 

Q.  1.  What  are  the  duties  of  an  engineman  before  attach- 
ing a  locomotive  to  the  train? 

A.  1.  The  duty  of  the  engineman  is  to  thoroughly  inspect 
his  engine  for  possible  defects  of  machinery.  He  should 
know  the  condition  of  the  fire-box,  grates,  etc.;  that  gauge 
and  water  glass  cocks  are  open  and  working  freely;  that  the 
crown  sheet  is  covered  with  sufficient  water  to  protect  it  from 
injury,  and  that  the  tender  has  been  supplied  with  fuel  and 
water.  He  should  also  know  the  condition  of  the  engineer's 
brake  valve  and  air  pump,  and  take  such  other  precautions 
as  would  prevent  an  engine  failure. 

Q.  2.     What  tools  should  there  be  on  the  locomotive? 

A.  2.  The  engine  should  be  provided  with  such  tools  as 
are  found  necessary  in  everyday  work.  This  includes  also 
tools  with  which  to  make  repairs  in  case  of  breakdown.  Clinker 
bar,  ash-hoe,  coal  pick,  shovel  and  broom  are  classed  as 
tools. 

Q.  3.  What  examination  should  be  made  after  any  repair 
work  has  been  done  on  valve,  brasses,  etc.? 

A.  3.  A  careful  examination  should  be  made  to  see  that 
the  work  has  been  properly  done,  that  all  movable  parts  have 
been  returned  to  place  and  properly  secured  by  set  screws 
or  otherwise.  If  valves  have  been  faced,  special  attention 
should  be  given  to  their  lubrication  until  they  are  worn 
smooth;  if  the  work  has  been  done  on  rod  brasses  or  other 
bearings,  the  locomotive  should  be  run  very  slowly  at  the 
start,  being  very  careful  to  give  them  sufficient  lubrication  and 
guarding  against  excessive  heating;  and  if  the  rod  brasses 
have  been  lined,  it  should  be  seen  that  they  are  keyed  properly 
and  do  not  pinch  the  pin. 

Q.  4.  W^hat  attention  should  be  given  to  boiler  attach- 
ments, such  as  gauge  cocks,  water  glasses,  etc.? 

A.  4.  See  that  gauge  cocks  can  be  opened  to  try  the  water, 
and  closed  so  steam  and  water  will  not  come  out  into  cab. 
Note  the  water  glass  and  see  if  water  is  moving  up  and  down 
in  the  glass;  that  the  steam  valve  at  the  top  and  water  valve 
at  the  bottom  of  glass  can  be  opened  and  closed,  and  that 
water  and  steam  circulates  freely  through  the  glass. 

Q.  5.  What  do  you  consider  necessary  to  report  on  locomo- 
tive boilers? 

A.  5.  All  defects  that  can  be  discovered,  their  nature  and 
cause,  and  all  leaks,  such  as  leaky  flues,  staybolts,  mud  rings, 
washout  plugs,  cocks  of  all  kinds,  steam  gauge  siphon  pipes, 
water  glass  connections,  etc. 


EXAMINATIONS.  537 

Q.  6.  Trace  the  steam  from  the  boiler  through  the  cylin- 
ders to  the  atmosphere  and  explain  how  it  transmits  power? 

A.  6.  From  the  main  throttle  in  the  dome  into  the  dry 
pipe,  then  through  the  steam  pipes  into  each  steam  chest. 
From  there  through  the  admission  port  into  one  end  of  the 
cylinder,  forcing  the  piston  to  the  opposite  end.  When  the 
piston  has  nearly  completed  its  stroke,  the  movement  of 
the  valve  (which  is  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the 
piston)  opens  a  connection  to  the  exhaust  port  and  allows 
the  steam  from  the  cylinder  to  pass  through  this  exhaust 
cavity  into  the  exhaust  pipe,  through  the  nozzle,  the  stack 
and  out  into  the  atmosphere.  The  action  of  the  steam,  forcing 
the  piston  through  the  cylinder  transmits  its  power  by  means 
of  crosshead,  and  main  rod  to  the  main  crank  pin,  causing  the 
wheels  to  revolve  and  move  the  engine. 

Q.  7.  Why  is  it  important  that  there  be  no  holes  through 
the  smoke-box  door  or  front  end  and  none  in  smoke-box  seams 
or  joints? 

A.  7.  There  should  be  no  possible  chance  for  the  admission 
of  air  to  any  part  of  the  smoke-box,  because  it  tends  to  destroy 
the  vacuum  necessary  to  create  a  perfect  draft  on  the  fire 
and  also  fans  any  fire  that  may  be  in  the  smoke-box,  which 
warps  and  destroys  the  sheets  or  front-end. 

Q.  8.  How  should  the  locomotive  be  started  to  avoid  jerks, 
and  what  train  and  other  signals  should  be  looked  out  for  at 
the  time  of  starting? 

A.  8.  The  engine  should  be  started  with  the  reverse  lever 
in  full  gear  in  the  direction  in  which  the  locomotive  is  expected 
to  move,  and  a  gradual  admission  of  steam  to  the  cylinders. 
Signals  should  be  carefully  looked  for  towards  the  rear  end 
of  the  train  to  make  sure  that  the  entire  train  has  been  started. 

Q.  9.  After  a  locomotive  has  been  started,  how  can  it  be 
run  most  economically? 

A.  9.  By  working  steam  expansively,  that  is,  with  the  re- 
verse lever  hooked  back  to  a  point  where  the  engine  will  handle 
the  train  with  a  full  or  nearly  full  throttle.  When  headway  is 
attained,  the  lever  should  be  hooked  up  gradually  and  placed 
in  running  cut-off  as  soon  as  possible,  thereby  saving  steam, 
water  and  coal  and  as  a  rule  making  better  time. 

Q.  10.     What  is  meant  by  working  steam  expansively? 

A.  10.  By  working  steam  expansively  is  meant  the  process 
by  which  steam  is  let  into  the  cylinder  and  cut  off  before  the 
piston  has  finished  its  full  stroke,  thereby  allowing  the  ex- 
pansive force  of  the  steam  to  exert  a  certain  amount  of  energy 
upon  the  piston  from  the  time  that  cut-off  took  place  up  to  the 
point  where  release  occurs. 

Q.  11.     How  rapidly  should  water  be  supplied  to  the  boiler? 


538  EXAMINATIONS. 

A.  11.  Water  should  be  delivered  to  the  boiler  no  faster  than 
it  is  evaporated  into  steam,  unless  just  before  a  hard  pull;  or 
when  shutting  off  with  a  heavy  bright  fire  in  the  fire-box  to 
avoid  waste  of  steam  at  the  pops. 

Q.  12.  What  is  the  difference  between  priming  and  foam- 
ing of  a  locomotive  boiler? 

A.  12.  Priming  is  caused  by  the  boiler  being  too  full  of  water 
and  has  a  tendency  to  raise  the  water:  while  foaming  is  caused 
by  foreign  substances  in  the  water,  such  as  dirt  from  animal 
oil,  alkali,  etc.  In  both  cases  water  is  carried  with  the  steam 
to  the  cylinder.  Muddy  water  or  certain  vegetable  matters 
will  also  cause  a  boiler»to  foam. 

Q.  l3.  What  should  you  do  in  a  case  of  foaming?  What  in 
a  case  of  priming? 

A.  13.  The  throttle  should  be  partly  closed  or  "eased  off" 
to  ascertain  the  true  water  level,  and  if  necessary  increase  the 
supplj'  of.  feed  water  to  prevent  its  getting  too  low.  Blow  out 
the  dirty  water  in  the  boiler  whenever  possible  and  replace  with 
clean  water.  In  case  of  priming,  the  water  level  should  be 
allowed  to  drop  to  the  proper  place  in  the  boiler  by  shutting 
off  the  supply  of  feed  water. 

Q.  14.  What  danger  is  there  when  the  water  foams  badly? 
W^hen  it  primes  badly? 

A.  14.  From  foaming  there  is  danger  of  exposing  the  crown 
sheet  to  the  intense  heat  and  the  liability  of  burning  it.  From 
priming  there  is  danger  of  knocking  out  a  cylinder  head.  Ad- 
ditional oil  should  be  fed  to  the  steam  chests  when  water 
primes  badly  until  valves  are  properly  lubricated. 

Q.  15.  Suppose  that  with  the  water  glass  in  good  working 
order,  immediately  after  closing  the '  throttle  the  water  dis- 
appeared from  the  water  glass,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  15.  The  throttle  should  be  opened  and  an  effort  made 
to  raise  water  until  both  injectors  would  put  enough  water 
into  the  boiler  to  make  it  absolutely  safe  to  close  throttle. 
If  unable  to  raise  the  water  level  to  the  lower  gauge  cock, 
smother  or  put  the  fire  out  entirely,  if  necessary,  keeping  both 
injectors  working. 

Q.  16.  What  work  about  a  locomotive  should  be  done  by 
the  engineman? 

A.  16.  He  should  set  up  the  wedges  and  key  up  the  rod 
brasses  and  see  that  all  nuts  and  bolts  are  tight,  also  inspect 
the  engine  both  before  and  after  each  trip,  and  do  any  work 
on  the  engine  after  starting  on  trip  to  avoid  breakdowns,  etc. 

Q.  17.  How  should  the  work  of  setting  up  the  wedges  be 
done? 

A.  17.  The  engine  should  be  placed  with  the  crank  pin  of 
the  right  side  on  the  upper,  forward  eighth,  which  brings  the 


EXAMINATIONS.  539 

crank  pin  of  the  left  side  on  the  back  upper  eighth.  Block 
the  wheels,  and  with  the  reverse  lever  in  the  forward  motion 
apply  a  small  quantity  of  steam.  As  the  action  of  the  steam 
against  the  piston  has  a  tendency  to  move  it  forward,  the  strain 
is  thrown  against  the  shoes,  permitting  a  free  movement  of 
the  wedges.  The  wedges  should  be  set  up  with  an  ordinary 
wrench  as  far  as  possible  and  then  gulled  down  again  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  prevent  the  box  from  sticking  either 
from  overheating  of  the  box  or  defective  lubrication  of  the 
wedge. 

Q.  18.     How  should  rod  brasses  be  keyed? 

A.  18.  If  properly  fitted  they  should  be  keyed  brass  to 
brass;  if  not  properly  fitted,  they  should  be  keyed  on  the  large 
part  of  the  pin,  free  enough  so  as  not  to  cause  heating  and 
snug  enough  so  as  to  run  without  pounding.  Neither  end 
should  be  keyed  so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  lateral  motion  of 
the  brass  on  the  pins. 

Q.  19.  How  should  an  engine  be  placed  for  the  purpose  of 
keying  the  rod  brasses? 

A.  19.  That  depends  entirely  upon  which  rods  are  to  be 
keyed.  If  the  main  rod  is  to  be  keyed,  place  the  side  of  the 
engine  upon  which  the  work  is  to  be  done  either  on  the  upper  for- 
ward eighth  or  the  lower  back  eighth,  as  these  positions  present 
the  greatest  diameter  of  the  pin  to  the  rod  brass  and  guarantee 
a  free  movement  at  all  points  without  binding.  After  keying 
up,  test  by  moving  the  wheel  to  another  position  and  see  if 
brasses  are  free  on  the  pin.  For  side  or  parallel  rods,  always 
stand  the  engine  on  the  center  for  the  side  that  is  being 
keyed. 

Q.  20.  How  should  the  side  rods  on  a  mogul  or  consolida- 
tion locomotive  be  keyed? 

A.  20.  Place  the  engine  on  the  dead  center  either  forward 
or  back.  First  key  the  middle  connection,  next  the  ends  of 
rods  and  observe  that  the  rod  moves  freely  on  the  pin.  Now 
place  the  engine  on  the  opposite  dead  center  and  notice  if  the 
rods  move  freely  at  this  point  also.  This  is  particularly  neces- 
sary with  rod  brasses  having  keys  on  both  sides  of  the  pin  and 
which  are  apt  to  be  made  either  too  long  or  too  short,  throwing 
the  rods  out  of  tram  and  causing  undue  strain  on  rods  and 
driving  boxes,  and  also  danger  of  broken  rods  or  pins. 

Q.  21.  What  is  the  necessity  for  keeping  the  brasses  keyed 
up  properly? 

A.  21.  To  prevent  unnecessary  shocks  and  heating  of  rod 
brasses  and  pounding"  in  driving  boxes;  if  too  tight  they  will 
run  hot,  if  too  loose,  they  will  pound,  which  in  time  will  cause 
undue  strain  on  the  entire  engine  with  disastrous  results. 
Very  loose  brasses  can  pound  enough  to  get  hot. 


540  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  22.  What  is  meant  by  an  engine  out  of  tram?  Out  of 
quarter? 

A.  22.  An  engine  out  of  tram  is  one  whose  distance  from 
center  to  center  of  axle  or  rod  on  one  side  does  not  coincide 
with  the  similar  distance  on  the  opposite  side;  or  it  may  mean 
that  the  distance  between  two  connected  crank  pins  is  not 
the  same  as  the  distance  between  the  two  axles  to  which  the 
crank  pins  belong.  An  engine  out  of  tram  is  sometimes  in- 
dicated by  unequal  flange  wear.  When  an  engine  is  out  of 
quarter,  the  crank  pin  in  one  wheel  is  not  exactly  90  degrees, 
or  one  quarter  of  a  turn  from  the  pin  in  the  wheels  on  the 
other  end  of  the  same  axle.  This  is  usually  caused  by  the 
engine  slipping  with  sand  on  one  rail  only. 

Q.  23.     Describe  a  piston  valve. 

A.  23.  A  piston  valve  is  a  cylindrical  spool  shaped  device 
having  cast  iron  packing  rings  sprung  into  place  on  the  valve, 
and  operating  in  a  cylindrical  steam  chest  of  equal  diameter. 
This  steam  chest  is  provided  with  suitable  admission  and  dis- 
charge ports;  steam  ports  to  the  cylinder,  exhaust  port  to  the 
exhaust  pipe  and  a  steam  port  for  live  steam  from  the  boiler. 

Q.  24.  What  is  a  balanced  slide  valve?  How  is  it  balanced, 
and  why?  For  what  purpose  is  the  hole  drilled  through  the  top 
of  the  valve? 

A.  24.  One  in  which  the  steam  pressure  on  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  valve  is  nearly  equalized,  by  protecting  a  portion 
of  the  top  of  the  valve  from  the  steam  pressure.  To  relieve 
this  top  pressure  to  some  extent,  the  valve  is  balanced  by  means 
of  strips  working  in  the  top  of  valve  held  by  strings  against 
the  balance  plate  on  the  steam  chest  cover,  thus  relieving  the 
pressure  from  that  part  of  the  valve  inclosed  by  the  strips. 
The  small  hole  in  the  top  of  the  valve  is  for  the  express  purpose 
of  allowing  any  pressure  which  may  have  accumulated  on  the 
top  of  the  valve  from  whatever  cause  to  escape  to  the  exhaust 
port,  also  to  equalize  the  exhaust  pressure  between  the  top  of 
the  valve  and  exhaust  cavity  as  well  as  to  assist  in  lubricating 
the  balance  plate. 

Q.  25.  What  is  meant  by  inside  and  outside  admission 
valves? 

A.  25.  An  inside  admission  valve  admits  steam  on  the 
inner  edge  and  exhausts  on  the  outer  edge,  while  an  outside 
admission  valve  admits  steam  to  the  ports  of  the  cylinder  on 
the  outside  edge  of  the  valve  and  exhausts  it  on  the  inner  edge. 
A  piston  valve  can  be  either  inside  or  outside  admission  while 
a  slide  valve  is  outside  admission  always. 

Q.  26.  What  is  the  relative  motion  of  the  main  piston  and 
the  steam  valves  for  inside  admission,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
tor  outside  admission? 


EXAMINATIONS.  541 

A.  26.  If  the  piston  is  in  the  front  end  of  the  cylinder  in 
order  to  connect  the  inside  of  the  valve  with  the  front  live 
steam  port  to  admit  steam  against  the  piston,  an  inside  ad- 
mission valve  must  move  forward.  The  outside  end  of  the 
valve  opens  the  exhaust  port  for  the  back  end  of  the  cylinder. 
With  the  piston  in  the  same  position,  an  outside  admission 
valve  must  move  backwards  to  open  the  steam  port,  or  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  steam  piston  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke. 

Q.  27.  What  is  an  Allen  ported  valve,  and  what  is  its 
object? 

A.  27.  An  Allen  ported  valve  is  an  outside  admission  slide 
valve,  having  an  auxiliary  port  cored  in  the  valve  and  extend- 
ing nearly  from  one  end  of  the  valve  to  the  other,  above  the 
exhaust  cavity  and  through  the  body  of  the  valve.  The  object 
of  this  port  is  for  the  admission  of  steam  through  the  valve 
at  the  same  time  that  steam  passes  by  the  end  of  the  valve 
into  the  same  port,  thus  doubling  the  area  of  opening  for  live 
steam  when  the  port  is  first  opened. 

Q.  28.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  valve  motion  for  out- 
side admission  valves  and  for  inside  admission  valves? 

A.  28.  An  outside  admission  valve  must  be  moved  in  an 
opposite  direction  to  an  inside  admission  valve  in  relation  to 
the  movement  of  the  steam  piston  at  the  beginning  of  its  stroke. 
For  a  change  in  these  valves  either  the  position  of  the  eccentric 
or  the  position  of  the  rocker  arms  in  relation  to  the  rocker  shaft 
must  be  opposite. 

Q.  29.  What  is  a  direct  motion  valve  gear?  What  is  an 
indirect  motion  valve  gear? 

A.  29.  In  a  direct  motion  valve  gear  the  valve  moves  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  eccentric  rod,  which  is  doing  the  work. 
Very  often  no  rocker  arm  is  used.  W^hen  a  rocker  arm  is  used, 
both  arms  point  in  the  same  direction  forming  the  letter  U.  In 
an  indirect  motion  valve  gear,  the  power  is  transmitted  from 
the  eccentric  to  the  lower  rocker  arm,  which  by  its  motion 
forward  forces  the  upper  arm  backward,  so  that  the  travel  of 
the  eccentric  is  diametrically  opposite  to  the  travel  of  the 
valve.  The  Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  owing  to  its  design  and 
construction  is  a  direct  motion  gear  when  the  engine  is  running 
in  one  direction  with  link  block  in  bottom  of  link,  but  when 
the  engine  is  running  in  an  opposite  direction  with  the  link 
block  in  the  top  of  the  link,  it  is  indirect  motion.  When  run- 
ning forward  it  is  usually  direct  motion. 

Q.  30.  How  can  you  detect  the  difference  between  a  blow 
in  valve  or  piston  packing? 

A.  30.  A  blow  from  the  valve  is  more  constant  and  has  a 
different  sound  than  a  blow  from  cylinder  or  piston  packing 


512  EXAMINATIONS. 

which  blows  stronger  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  and  slowly 
decreases  as  the  stroke  is  finished. 

Q.  31.  How  would  you  place  engine  to  locate  broken  ad- 
mission steam  ring  in  piston  valve? 

A.  31.  The  engine  should  be  placed  on  quarter,  the  reverse 
lever  in  center  to  cover  ports,  then  throttle  opened.  Steam 
will  blow  out  of  cylinder  cock  at  end  of  cylinder  where  broken 
valve  ring  is  located. 

Q.  32.  How  would  you  locate  broken  exhaust  ring  in  piston 
valve? 

A.  32.  When  engine  is  working  steam,  watch  the  cross- 
head.  As  there  will  be  three  normal  and  one  light  exhaust,  it 
can  be  determined  on  which  side  of  the  engine  the  light  ex- 
haust takes  place. 

Q.  33.     What  is  meant  by  lead?    What  by  line  and  line? 

A.  33.  Lead  is  the  amount  of  port  opening  a  valve  has  for 
live  steam  when  the  piston  is  on  dead  center.  Line  and  line 
is  meant  when  the  steam  edge  of  the  valve  is  in  line  with  the 
edge  of  the  steam  port  when  piston  is  on  the  center. 

Q.  34.     What  is  meant  by  steam  lap? 

A.  34.  The  distance  the  valve  overlaps  the  steam  ports, 
when  the  valve  is  in  the  center  of  its  seat.  Although  the  valve 
laps  equally  at  both  ends,  the  distance  is  measured  at  one  end 
only. 

Q.  35.  What  is  meant  by  exhaust  lap?  What  by  exhaust 
clearance? 

A.  35.  Exhaust  lap  is  th^  amo^mt  the  inner  edge  of  the 
valve  overlaps  the  steam  ports  when  the  valve  is  in  the  middle 
of  the  seat.  Exhaust  clearance  is  the  amount  the  inside  edge 
of  the  valve  comes  short  of  covering  the  ports  when  the  valve 
is  in  the  middle  of  its  seat.  If  the  valve  has  neither  exhaust 
lap  nor  clearance  it  is  said  to  be  line  and  line. 

Q.  36.     What  is  meant  by  release?    What  by  compression? 

A.  36.  Release  is  the  point  in  the  travel  of  the  piston  when 
the  exhaust  opens.  Compression  is  the  amount  the  piston  trav- 
els after  exhaust  port  closes  before  the  live  steam  opens. 
During  this  travel  of  the  piston  the  exhaust  port  is  closed;  the 
moving  piston  compressing  the  steam  left  in  the  cylinder. 

Q.  37.  With  an  indirect  valve  motion  and  outside  admission 
valve,  what  would  be  the  position  of  the  eccentric  relative  to 
the  crank  pin  on  that  side?  What  with  a  direct  valve  gear? 
What  difference  between  outside  admission  valve  and  inside 
admission  valve  as  to  this  position? 

A.  37.  The  go-ahead  eccentric  follows  the  crank  pin  when 
engine  is  running  ahead  if  there  is  an  indirect  valve  motion 
and  an  outside  admission  valve.  Without  any  lap  or  lead  it 
would  be  90  degrees  behind  the  pin  or  a  quarter  of  a  turn,  but 


EXAMINATIONS.  543 

as  all  valves  have  lap  and  lead,  the  eccentric  is  advanced  or 
placed  toward  the  pin  enough  to  move  the  valve  the  amount 
of  the  lap  and  lead.  With  a  direct  valve  gear  and  an  outside 
admission  valve  the  eccentric  will  be  90  degrees  or  a  quarter 
of  a  turn  ahead  of  the  crank  pin  and  advanced  enough  to  move 
the  valve  the  amount  of  the  lap  and  lead.  With  an  inside 
admission  valve  and  an  indirect  valve  motion,  the  eccentric 
will  come  the  same  as  for  an  outside  valve  and  direct  motion, 
or  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  turn  ahead  of  the  pin.  With  an 
inside  admission  valve  and  direct  motion,  the  eccentric  will 
follow  the  pin  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  turn. 

Q.  38.  What  effect  would  be  produced  upon  the  lap  and 
lead  by  changing  the  length  of  the  eccentric  rod? 

A.  38.  Lap  depends  upon  the  construction  of  the  valve.  It 
would  not  be  affected  by  a  change  of  the  eccentric  rod  but  the 
port  opening  would  be  widened  at  one  end  of  the  travel  and 
reduced  at  the  other.  It  should  be  equal  at  both  ends.  The 
position  of  the  eccentric  on  the  axle  controls  the  lead  and 
must  be  equal  at  both  ends.  Changing  the  length  of  the 
eccentric  rod  from  the  proper  one  does  not  actually  affect  the 
lead  as  no  proper  measurement  can  be  made  until  lead  is  equal 
at  both  ends.  Improper  length,  therefore,  of  the  eccentric 
rod  varies  the  port  opening  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  of 
the  piston  at  both  ends. 

Q.  39.     Why  are  eccentric  rods  made  adjustable? 

A.  39.  So  as  to  change  their  length  to  make  adjustment  of 
the  valve  gear  not  so  easily  made  in  any  other  way. 

Q.  40.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  keep  the  cylinders  free  from 
water? 

A.  40.  To  prevent  damage  to  valves  and  cylinders,  to  secure 
perfect  lubrication  and  efficient  service  from  the  locomotive. 

Q.  41.  Where  is  the  piston  rod  packing  located?  Where 
cylinder  packing? 

A.  41.  Piston  rod  packing  is  usually  soft  metallic  rings 
located  in  the  back  cylinder  head,  and  around  the  rod.  Cylinder 
packing  rfngs  are  usually  cast  iron,  placed  in  grooved  recep- 
tacles provided  for  that  purpose  in  the  circular  surface  of  the 
piston. 

Q.  42.  How  are  metallic  packing  rings  on  piston  rods  and 
valve  stems  held  in  place?  What  provisions  are  made  for  the 
uneven  movements  of  the  rod? 

A.  42.  Metallic  packing  rings  are  held  in  place  by  stiffened 
spiral  springs  pressing  against  a  ring  and  forcing  the  packing 
into  a  bell  shaped  cone.  Suitable  provision  is  made  for  the 
uneven  movement  of  the  rod  in  that  the  cone  holding  the 
metallic  packing  has  a  ground  and  steam  tight  joint  which 
permits  the  cone  to  have  a  lateral  motion  against  the  face  of 


544  EXAMINATIONS. 

the  packing  gland,  and  thereby  prevents  the  escape  of  any 
;Steani. 

Q.  43.  While  running  under  steam  and  there  is  a  failure 
of  part  of  the  locomotive  which  does  not  seem  to  prevent  run- 
ning at  full  speed,  how  would  you  proceed? 

A.  43.  Keep  the  locomotive  running  if  it  is  deemed  safe. 
Endeavor  to  ascertain  the  failure  and  prepare  to  do  such  work 
as  the  case  demands  at  the  next  stop.  Be  careful  to  do  the 
work  at  a  stop  which  will  not  interfere  with  the  running  of 
trains  on  the  main  line. 

Q.  44.  If  one  side  of  a  locomotive  is  disabled,  what  would 
you  do  in  a  general  way  to  make  it  possible  to  use  steam  on 
the  other  side? 

A.  44.  Disconnect  enough  parts  to  permit  the  turning  of 
the  wheels  and  for  reversing  of  the  opposite  side  without  moving 
the  valve  on  the  disabled  side. 

Q.  45.  In  case  a  locomotive  in  your  care  became  disabled 
on  the  road,  what  would  you  do? 

A.  45.  First,  protect  the  train  front  and  rear  by  flags  the 
prescribed  distance.  Make  such  temporary  repairs  as  are  neces- 
sary to  get  the  train  to  the  next  siding,  in  order  to  prevent 
blockading  of  the  main  line.  When  on  the  siding  make  all  the 
repairs  practicable  with  the  tools  at  hand.  If  the  breakdown 
is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  making  even 
temporary  repairs  so  as  to  clear  the  main  lines,  arrange  to 
notify  the  nearest  telegraph  office  of  your  location  and  ask  for 
assistance,  giving  full  particulars. 

Q.  46.  Suppose  a  wash-out  plug  blew  out  or  a  blow-off  cock 
broke  off  or  would  not  close,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  46.  First,  put  both  injectors  to  work  and  endeavor  to 
overcome  the  leak  until  you  can  get  in  to  clear.  That  failing, 
draw  the  fire  at  once  to  prevent  burning  of  fire-box  sheets. 
In  addition  to  this,  in  cold,  freezing  weather,  the  pet  cocks  on 
all  connections  where  there  is  any  liability  of  water  collecting 
should  be  opened  to  drain  the  pipes,  and  in  the  absence  of  cocks 
the  coupling  should  be  slacked  off.  The  tender  hose'  couplings 
should  be  disconnected  and  special  care  should  be  given  to  the 
air  pump  drain  cocks  to  prevent  the  rupture  of  the  steam  cylin- 
der of  pump. 

Q.  47.  Can  a  locomotive  boiler  without  steam  pressure  be 
filled  by  being  towed  by  another  engine?    If  towed,  how  filled? 

A.  47.  Yes.  All  opening  where  air  could  enter  the  boiler 
should  be  closed.  Relief  valves,  cylinder  cocks,  gauge  cocks, 
whistle  valve  and  air  pump  steam  valves  should  also  be  closed. 
The  reverse  lever  should  be  placed  in  full  gear  in  the  direction 
the.  engine  is  to  be  towed  with  water  supply  valve  and  injector 
throttle  open.    Engine  oil  should  be  used  through  auxiliary  oil 


EXAMIXATIOXS.  545 

cups  to  oil  valves  and  pistons.  When  the  engine  is  being  towed 
the  movement  of  the  pistons  in  the  cylinders  will  pump  the  air 
out  of  the  boiler  and  the  atmospheric  pressure  on  water  in  the 
tank  will  force  the  water  into  the  boiler. 

Q.  48.  What  should  be  done  if  grates  should  be  burned  out 
or  broken  while  on  the  road? 

A.  48.  Block  up  the  broken  or  burnt  grates  with  fish-plates, 
brick  or  anything  conveniently  at  hand,  disconnect  the  good 
grates  immediately  ahead  and  back  of  the  burnt  section  in 
order  to  prevent  disturbing  the  other  grates  when  shaking  down 
the  fire,  then  level  the  fire,  clean  ash-pan  and  proceed  with  full 
train. 

Q.  49.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  loco- 
motive throwing  fire? 

A.  49.  In  order  to  prevent  engines  from  throwing  fire  the 
netting  in  the  smoke  arch  must  be  carefully  looked  after,  and 
the  cinder  slide  and  hand  hold  plates  must  be  in  their  proper 
places  and  securely  fastened.  It  is  equally  important  that  the 
ash-pan  be  clean  and  slide  dampers  for  dumping  ashes  closed, 
otherwise  live  coals;  more  dangerous  than  cinders  will  roll  out. 
Care  should  be  exercised  in  working  the  engine  in  the  vicinity 
of  stations  or  places  where  fire  is  liable  to  catch.  Avoid  slipping 
the  engine  with  an  old  fire  that  will  throw  cinders. 

Q.  50.  What  shall  be  done  with  a  badly  leaking  or  bursted 
flue? 

A.  50.  It  should  be  plugged  if  possible  with  an  iron  or  wooden 
plug.  If  in  the  fire-box  end,  sharpen  a  piece  of  scantling  or 
post  and  drive  into  the  flue  from  the  fire-box  door  which  will 
burn  off  up  to  where  the  water  from  the  bursted  flues  keeps  it 
wet.  If  a  bottom  flue  it  should  be  covered  with  ashes  or  green 
coal  to  protect  balance  of  the  flre.  Bran  or  any  starchy  sub- 
stance admitted  through  the  heater  cock  on  the  injector  after 
the  injector  has  been  started  will  aid  in  stopping  a  bad  leak. 
If  able  to  maintain  steam  pressure  would  then  proceed. 

Q.  51.  What  should  be  done  in  case  the  throttle  valve  stem 
became  disconnected  while  the  valve  is  closed?  If  it  becames 
disconnected  leaving  valve  open? 

A.  51.  The  train  crew  and  dispatcher  should  be  notified 
and  arrangements  made  to  be  towed  in.  With  lubricator  work- 
ing would  not  disconnect  unless  in  very  cold  weather  when 
there  is  danger  of  water  freezing  in  the  cylinders  or  steam  chest 
passages.  A  larger  supply  of  steam  could  be  gotten  into  the 
cylinders  by  taking  out  lubricator  chokes  and  steam  chest 
valves  from  the  oil  pipe.  If  disconnected  and  valve  stuck  open, 
notify  proper  officials  and  train  crew.  Pressure  should  be  re- 
duced until  able  to  handle  engine  with  reverse  lever  and  brake 
and  proceed  with  what  can  be  handled  by  engine.    Take  up  the 


546  EXAMINATIONS. 

dome  cap  and  connect  throttle  if  practicable  and  train  is  in 
the  clear. 

Q.  52.  In  case  a  valve  yoke  pr  stem  became  broken  inside 
of  steam  chest,  how  can  the  breakage  be  located? 

A.  52.  With  a  broken  valve  stem  or  yoke,  the  valve  Is 
always  forced  to  the  forward  end  of  chest.  With  an  outside 
admission  piston  valve  or  a  slide  valve,  place  the  lever  in  the 
forward  gear  and  watch  the  steam  leaving  the  cylinder  cocks. 
Reverse  the  lever  and  if  steam  issues  from  both  cocks  on  one 
side  and  from  only  the  back  one  on  the  other,  this  latter  has 
the  disabled  valve.  With  the  inside  admission,  steam  would 
issue  from  the  front  cylinder  cock  on  the  disabled  side.  Where 
relief  valves  are  used  remove  them  first  and  watch  movement 
of  valve. 

Q.  53.  After  locating  a  breakage  of  this  kind,  how  would 
you  proceed  to  put  the  engine  in  safe  running  order? 

A.  53.  If  the  engine  had  relief  valves  on  the  front  end  of 
the  steam  chest,  disconnect  valve  rod;  and,  after  forcing  valve 
to  central  position  to  cover  ports,  clamp  stem  from  one  end  and 
block  with  a  plug  driven  into  relief  valve  of  sufficient  length  to 
hold  the  valve  in  place,  leave  up  main  rod  and  proceed.  If 
relief  valve  were  on  the  back  end,  the  chest  cover  would  not 
have  to  be  taken  up,  but  the  back  end  of  main  rod  would  have 
to  be  disconnected  and  crosshead  blocked  ahead.  The  discon- 
nected valve  rod  would  hold  the  valve  against  the  forward  end 
of  the  steam  chest. 

Q.  54.  If  a  slide  valve  is  broken,  what  can  be  done  to  run 
tlie  engine  on  one  side? 

A.  54.  The  steam  chest  cover  should  be  removed  and  a  thin 
piece  of  board  or  plate  placed  between  the  valve  and  steam 
passages  in  seat.  Steam  chest  cover  should  then  be  replaced, 
disconnecting  valve  rod  and  if  the  cylinders  can  be  lubricated 
leave  up  the  main  rod  and  proceed  on  one  side. 

Q.  55.  If  one  of  the  bolts  connecting  the  two  parts  of  a 
built  up  link  on  Stephenson  gear  breaks  or  is  lost,  how  would 
you  proceed? 

A.  55.  If  temporary  bolt  cannot  be  supplied,  take  down 
the  forward  part  of  the  link,  disconnect  and  remove  the  link 
block,  fasten  valve  to  cover  the  ports  and  proceed.  If  moving 
link  clears  rocker  arm  or  other  parts  of  the  machinery  after 
link  block  has  been  taken  out,  it  is  not  necessary  to  discon- 
nect eccentrics. 

Q.  56.  What  should  be  done  in  case  of  link  saddle  pin 
breaking? 

A.  56.  Put  the  lever  in  a  notch  forward  where  one  would  be 
safe  in  starting  a  train.  Then  raise  the  link  on  the  disabled 
side  to  the  same  level  as  the  good  one  and  block  between  top 


EXAMINATIONS.  547 

of  the  link  block  and  the  link.  Have  another  block  ready  of 
sufficient  length  to  raise  the  link  enough  should  it  be  necessary 
to  back  up  the  engine. 

Q.  57.  With  one  link  blocked  up,  what  should  be  guarded 
against? 

A.  57.  Guard  against  reversing  the  engine.  Do  not  move 
the  tumbling  shaft  arm  down  so  the  link  on  the  disabled  side 
can  strike  it. 

Q.  58.  How  can  it  be  known  if  an  eccentric  has  slipped  on 
the  axle? 

A.  58.  By  a  lame  exhaust  or,  with  a  bad  slip,  one  of  the 
exhausts  disappearing  entirely,  and  by  watching  the  crosshead 
to  note  when  the  exhaust  takes  place. 

Q.  59.  Having  determined  which  eccentric  has  slipped,  how 
should  it  be  reset? 

A.  59.  Having  located  the  eccentric,  if  it  is  a  go-ahead,  move 
the  engine  so  that  the  crosshead  will  come  very  near  to  the 
end  of  its  travel  ahead.  Then  move  the  eccentric  around  point- 
ing in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  back-up,  leaning  either 
toward  or  from  the  pin— which  would  depend  entirely  on  the 
style  of  valve  and  whether  direct  or  indirect  motion.  As  soon 
as  steam  appears  at  front  cylinder  cock,  tighten  the  set  scews. 
For  a  back-up  eccentric,  lever  and  crosshead  will  have  to  be 
placed  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  best  way  is  to  mark  the 
eccentrics  before  starting,  by  placing  the  lever  in  forward  notch 
and  having  crosshead  at  front  end  of  travel.  Then  make  a 
mark  on  the  crosshead  and  the  guide,  doing  the  same  with 
eccentrics  and  straps.  If  from  any  cause  an  eccentric  slips 
and  the  engine  is  placed  so  that  the  mark  on  the  crosshead 
corresponds  with  that  on  the  guide,  the  marks  on  three  of  the 
eccentrics  will  correspond  with  those  on  the  straps,  while  the 
fourth  or  slipped  eccentric's  mark  will  be  some  distance  away 
from  the  mark  on  its  strap.  By  this  method  an  eccentric 
can  be  set  as  true  as  any  machinist  can  set  it,  and  there  is  no 
guesswork. 

Q.  60.  What  should  be  done  in  case  of  a  broken  eccentric 
strap  or  rod? 

A.  60.  If  a  go-ahead  strap  or  rod  is  broken  take  off  all 
broken  parts,  disconnect  valve  rod,  cover  ports  and  proceed 
on  one  side.  It  is  advisable  to  take  down  back-up  strap  and  rod 
also  on  that  side.  For  a  broken  back-up  strap  and  rod,  secure 
the  bottom  end  of  the  link  so  it  will  not  turn  over.  Engine 
should  be  worked  full  stroke  ahead  and  proceed. 

Q.  61.  How  should  the  engine  be  disconnected  if  the  lower 
rocker  arm  became  broken?    If  link  block  pin? 

A.  61.  Unless  the  link  interferes,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to 
remove  the  broken  part  of  the  arm,  cover  ports  by  placing  valve 


548  EXAMINATIONS. 

in  its  central  position  and  leaving  the  main  rod  up;  otherwise 
the  eccentric  straps  and  rods  would  have  to  come  down.  With 
a  broken  link  block  pin,  there  is  more  or  less  of  interference 
between  the  link  and  the  rocker  arm.  Take  down  the  eccentric 
straps  and  rods  only,  and  cover  the  ports. 

Q.  62.  For  what  break-down  is  it  necessary  to  take  down 
the  main  rod?    The  side  rod? 

A.  62.  Broken  main  crank  pin,  broken  piston  rod,  when 
near  the  middle  of  the  rod,  broken  main  rod  or  strap,  broken 
crosshead  or  guide  and  when  steam  cannot  be  kept  out  of 
the  cylinder,  the  broken  valve  or  seat.  When  side  rod  is  broken 
side  rods  must  come  down,  also  broken  main  pin  or  broken  side 
rod  pin  affecting  that  rod. 

Q.  63.  If  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  down  the  main  rod  of 
disabled  side  of  the  engine,  how  would  you  arrange  to  lubricate 
the  cylinders? 

A.  63.  By  removing  the  indicator  plugs,  if  the  engine  is 
equipped  with  them,  oiling  through  them  and  replacing  the 
plugs.  If  the  engine  has  no  plugs,  shift  the  valve  just  enough 
to  show  a  little  steam  at  the  cylinder  cocks  and  oil  with  the 
lubricator.  If  otherwise  impossible,  slack  off  nuts  on  front 
cylinder  head  on  disabled  side  and  wedge  the  head  open 
sufficiently  to  introduce  the  oil. 

Q.  64.     What  is  the  by-pass  valve,  and  what  is  its  duty? 

A.  64.  The  by-pass  valve  is  a  small  valve  similar  to  the 
check  valve  and  connected  with  the  live  steam  side  of  the 
valve,  and  the  steam  port  between  the  valve  and  cylinder. 
When  engine  is  drifting  with  steam  shut  off,  its  duty  is  to  open 
and  close  when  working  steam  to  permit  air  to  pass  back  and 
forth  from  opposite  sides  of  the  moving  piston. 

Q.  65.  What  is  a  vacuum  relief  valve?  What  is  a  cylinder 
relief  valve? 

A.  65.  Vacuum  relief  valves  are  usually  located  on  the 
steam  chest  or  the  live  steam  passage  to  the  chest.  They  open 
when  the  steam  is  shut  off  and  the  engine  is  drifting  and  allow 
atmospheric  pressure  to  pass  into  th6  steam  chest.  When 
working  steam  they  close.  Cylinder  relief  valves  are  pop 
valves  screwed  into  the  cylinder  heads  and  set  at  high  enough 
pressure  not  to  open  in  ordinary  service,  but  to  open  to  permit 
water  to  pass  out  when  exhaust  ports  are  closed  by  valves:  or 
on  compound  engines  when  the  pressure  in  the  low-pressure 
cylinders  gets  too  high. 

Q.  66.  What  would  be  considered  a  bad  engine  or  tender 
truck  wheel? 

A.  66.  One  loose  on  axle,  cracked,  worn  in  the  tread  ^-inch 
deep,  with  sharp  or  broken  flange,  flat  or  shelled  out  spots 


EXAMINATIONS.  549 

in  the  tread  2^/^  inches  or  more  in  length,  or  other  defect  that 
would  make  it  unsafe. 

Q.  67.  What  should  be  done  if  a  tender  truck  wheel  or  axle 
should  break? 

A.  67.  Lift  up  damaged  truck  corner  and  chain  it  to  a  rail 
or  stout  timber  which  is  placed  across  the  tender.  Sometimes 
you  can  slide  the  wheel  or  truck  by  placing  a  tie  across  the  rail 
to  carry  the  weight  and  keep  the  wheel  from  turning,  then 
pull  it  to  a  siding. 

Q.  68.  What  should  be  done  if  an  engine  truck  wheel  or 
axle  should  break? 

A.  68.  It  should  be  entirely  removed  or  blocked  up  so  as  to 
have  the  wheel  clear  of  the  rail,  and  the  truck  frame  should  be 
securely  fastened  to  the  engine  frame  with  chains.  Move 
cautiously  over  crossing  frogs.  With  a  broken  flange,  skid  it 
to  a  siding  by  blocking  the  wheel  thus  preventing  its  turning. 

Q.  69.  What  should  be  done  for  a  broken  tender  truck 
spring? 

A.  69.  Put  a  block  in  place  of  the  broken  spring,  after  jack- 
ing up  the  tender  to  where  it  belongs.  • 

Q.  70.  What  should  be  done  with  a  broken  engine  truck 
spring  or  equalizer? 

A.  70.  Raise  the  front  end  of  engine  and  place  blocks  across 
the  equalizertS  under  the  truck  spring  near  the  spring  band. 
Block  on  top  of  engine  truck  boxes  and  under  truck  frame  when 
an  equalizer  is  broken. 

Q.  71.  What  should  be  done  if  a  driving  spring  hanger  or 
equalizer  should  break? 

A.  71.  Use  a  hard  wood  block  or  piece  of  iron  blocking 
between  the  driving  box  affected  and  under  the  frame  over  it. 
Block  equalizer  up  to  its  proper  position  between  the  disabled 
end  and  the  frame  or  over  the  other  end  to  hold  equalizer  level, 
being  governed  by  the  type  of  spring  rigging  used.  For  a 
broken  equalizer  all  boxes  affected  should  be  blocked  on  top; 
the  engine  may  be  raised  by  running  the  proper  driving  wheels 
up  an  incline  thus  lifting  the  engine  while  other  boxes  are 
blocked;  a  re-railing  frog  comes  handy  for  this  work. 

Q.  72.  How  can  an  engine  be  moved  if  the  reverse  lever  or 
reach  rod  were  caught  at  short  cut-oJ  by  a  broken  spring  or 
hanger? 

A.  72.  By  disconnecting  the  tumbling  shaft  arm  and  block- 
ing over  the  link  block  pin  with  blocking  that  would  permit 
suflBcient  power  to  be  used  to  start  the  train. 

Q.  73.  How  can  the  blowing  of  steam  past  cylinder  packing, 
a  valve  or  valve  strip  be  distinguished  or  located? 

A.  73.  Cylinder  packing  will  blow  the  hardest  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  stroke  and  has  a  heavy  blow;  a  valve  blow  is  con- 


550  EXAMINATIONS. 

tinuous  and  has  a  whistling  sound;  a  valve  strip  blow  is  con- 
tinuous and  sounds  as  though  the  blower  were  on  quite  strong. 
Plare  lever  in  full  gear,  engine  on  the  quarter  and  give  engine 
steam;  if  it  appears  at  the  opposite  cylinder  cock  it  indicates 
cylinder  packing  blow.  Place  valve  centrally  on  its  seat,  give 
engine  steam;  if  it  appears  at  either  cylinder  cock,  it  is  a  valve 
blow;  if  no  steam  or  very  little  steam  escapes  from  cylinder 
cock,  but  escapes  through  exhaust  port  to  stack  it  indicates  a 
valve  strip  blow,  which  permits  steam  to  escape  through  the 
small  hole  on  top  of  the  valve  to  the  exhaust  port.  If  there  is 
a  drip  cock  in  the  exhaust  pipe  under  the  saddle,  by  giving 
engine  a  little  steam  when  standing,  a  valve  strip  blow  can  be 
located  by  steam  blowing  out  of  drip  cock  on  whichever  side 
leak  is.  This  kind  of  blow  can  also  be  located  by  the  increased 
friction,  which  will  cause  the  valve  stem  on  that  side  to  jerk 
when  in  motion;  or  it  may  be  located  by  placing  the  crank  pins 
on  the  quarter  alternately  and  handling  the  reverse  lever  under 
steam  pressure;  the  blow  will  be  on  the  side  which  handles 
hardest. 

Q.  74.  If  engine  should  blow  badly  and  be  unable  to  start 
the  train  when  on  the  right  dead  center,  on  which  side  would 
be  the  blow  generally? 

A.  74.  On  the  left  side.  If  the  side  standing  on  the  quarter 
is  not  able  to  start  the  train,  the  trouble  is  probably  there. 

Q.  75.  If  throttle  were  closed  and  steara  came  out  of  cylin- 
der cocks,  what  might  be  the  cause? 

A.  75.     Leaky  throttle  or  dry  pipe. 

Q.  76.  Is  it  possible  to  distinguish  between  a  leaky  throttle 
and  a  leaky  dry  pipe? 

A. 76.  Yes,  a  leaky  throttle  will  show  dry  steam  only,  while 
with  a  leaky  dry  pipe  more  or  less  water  will  pass  out  of  the 
cylinder  cocks  with  the  steam  when  the  engine  is  standing, 
and  when  the  engine  is  working  she  appears  to  be  working 
water  all  the  time,  particularly  with  a  full  boiler  of  water. 

Q.  77.  What  effect  have  leaky  steam  pipes  in  the  smoke- 
arch,  and  how  should  they  be  tested? 

A.  77.  They  interfere  with  the  draft  on  the  fire  and  prevent 
the  engine  from  making  steam.  Place  the  lever  on  the  center, 
set  the  air  brake,  open  the  throttle  and  watch  the  joints  of  the 
steam  pipes  top  and  bottom.  The  proper  test  is  the  hydraulic 
test  made  in  the  shop. 

Q.  78.  How  should  the  test  for  leaky  exhaust  pipe  joint, 
or  a  leaky  nozzle  joint  be  made? 

A.  78.  By  placing  the  lever  forward  or  back  and  moving 
the  engine  slowly  with  brakes  set  and  watching  the  joints. 
Cinders  never  accumulate  around  such  leaks  and  are  always 
driven  away  from  them. 


EXAMINATIONS.  551 

Q.  79.    What  should  be  done  if  a  steam  chest  cracks? 

A.  79.  If  the  crack  is  not  too  serious,  temporary  relief  can 
1)6  obtained  by  driving  wedges  between  the  chest  bolts  and 
steam  chest.  A  brake  shoe  key  can  be  used  for  crowding  the 
l)roken  parts  together.  Then  tighten  down  on  steam  chest 
cover. 

Q.  80.     What  should  be  done  if  a  steam  chest  breaks? 

A.  80.  That  depends  on  the  type.  With  the  chest  com- 
monly used,  take  up  the  chest  cover,  insert  blocking  over  the 
steam  passages  to  chest  and  bolt  the  cover  down  firmly  upon 
them.    Disconnect  as  necessary  and  proceed  on  one  side. 

Q.  81.  If  a  link  lifter  or  arm  were  broken,  what  should  be 
done? 

A.  81.  Disabled  parts  should  be  taken  off,  block  between 
top  of  link  and  link  block,  so  that  disabled  link  will  be  blocked 
down  very  nearly  in  full  stroke.  Both  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
disabled  link  should  have  blocks  in  its  slot  so  as  to  be  safe. 
The  reverse  lever  would  hold  the  good  link  in  place  and 
should  never  be  dropped  down  any  farther  than  the  disabled 
link  was. 

Q.  82.  If  the  reverse  lever  or  reach  rod  should  break, 
what  should  be  done? 

A.  82.  If  either  breaks,  securely  fasten  in  position  an  iron 
bar  or  other  suitable  material  across  the  top  of  both  frames, 
then  fasten  the  arm  of  the  tumbling  shaft  to  the  bar.  The 
engine  will  then  have  to  be  worked  at  about  half  cut-off  and 
the  road  conditions  would  govern  what  part  of  the  train  it 
"Would  be  permissible  to  handle. 

Q.  83.  What  should  be  done  if  the  piston,  piston  rod  cross- 
head,  main  rod  or  crank  pin  are  broken  or  bent? 

A.  83.  If  piston  should  break  remove  broken  parts,  discon- 
nect valve  stem  clamp  valve  in  central  position,  leave  main 
rod  up  if  moving  piston  wou'ld  not  damage  cylinder,  and 
proceed.  If  cross  head,  piston  rod,  main  rod  or  crank  pin  are 
bent  or  broken,  take  down  the  main  rod,  block  the  valve  and 
cross  head,  and  leave  the  main  rod  up  if  piston  rod  is  broken 
off  at  the  cross  head. 

Q.  84.  What  should  be  done  when  there  is  a  loose  or  lost 
<;ylinder  key? 

A.  84.  If  the  key  is  loose  and  can  be  shimmed  up,  it  is 
safe  to  go  on.  If  the  key  is  lost  and  nothing  available,  such 
as  track  spike  or  cold  chisel,  in  its  place,  the  engine  should  be 
run  in  light  to  prevent  further  damage. 

Q.  85.  What  should  be  done  if  a  safety  valve  spring  or  stud 
breaks? 

A.  85.  Reduce  steam  pressure.  Screw  the  parts  down  solid 
or  clamp  the  stem  down  when  the  spring  is  broken.    To  do 


552  EXAMINATIONS. 

this  lay  a  piece  of  scantling  across  the  top  of  the  valve,  fasten 
each  end  to  the  hand  rails  on  each  side  of  the  engine  in  case  of 
broken  stud.  Raise  steam  pressure  and  proceed.  The  other 
safety  valves  should  relieve  the  steam  pressure  properly  and 
care  should  be  taken  that  they  do. 

Q.  86.  How  can  an  engine  be  brought  in  with  a  broken 
front  end  or  stack? 

A.  86.  By  boarding  up  the  front  end  and  by  protecting  it 
with  the  canvas  cab  curtain,  making  it  as  nearly  air  tight  as 
possible  and  using  a  petticoat  pipe  or  barrel  in  place  of  the 
stack,  securing  it  to  the  smoke  arch.  The  engine  might 
steam  properly  without  the  petticoat  pipe  or  barrel  if  part  of 
the  stack  is  inside  of  the  smoke-box. 

Q.  87.  What  should  be  done  if  the  frame  is  broken  be- 
tween the  main  driver  and  cylinder? 

A.  87.  The  safest  plan  is  to  be  towed  in.  The  other  alter- 
native is  to  disconnect  the  disabled  side  and  bring  the  engine 
in  light,  because  an  attempt  to  bring  in  part  of  the  train 
might  damage  the  previously  uninjured  side. 

Q.  88.     If  the  frame  is  broken  back  of  the  main  driver? 

A.  88.  Reduce  to  light  tonnage  and  come  in  without  dis- 
connecting. 

Q.  89.     In  case  of  broken  side  rods,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  89.  Take  down  broken,  rod  and  corresponding  rod  on 
opposite  side  also. 

Q.  90.  What  can  be  done  if  the  intermediate  side  rods  were 
broken  on  a  consolidation  engine  having  the  eccentric  on  the 
axle  ahead  of  the  main  wheel? 

A.  90.  There  is  nothing  to  be  done  but  be  towed  in,  un- 
less only  one  side  is  broken,  when  it  w^ould  be  possible  to  bring 
the  engine  in  under  her  own  steam  on  one  side,  with  the  dis- 
abled side  having  its  valve  disconnected  and  ports  covered, 
but  this  is  not  advisable,  inasmuch  as  the  engine  might  slip 
and  break  the  other  intermediate  rod  and  do  incalculable 
damage.  All  side  rods  ahead  of  the  intermediate  on  both  sides 
would  have  to  come  down. 

Q.  91.  Should  one  of  the  forward  tire,  main  tire,  inter- 
mediate tire,  or  a  trailer  tire  break,  what  must  be  done  to  bring 
the  engine  in? 

A.  91.  Run  the  wheel  up  on  a  wedge  so  as  to  clear  the 
rail  under  all  conditions;  remove  the  oil  cellar  and  fit  a  block 
in  its  place;  then  place  another  block  between  the  bottom  of  the 
box  and  the  pedestal  binder.  Also  block  under  the  equalizers 
or  on  top  of  the  box  of  the  wheel,  ahead  or  back  as  necessary, 
to  remove  weight  from  disabled  wheel.  With  a  back  driver  or 
trailer  tire  broken,  endeavor  to  chain  across  from  the  engine 
frame  on  disabled  side  to  opposite  side  of  tank  to  keep  the 


EXAMINATIONS.  553 

rear  end  on  the  track,  and  this  failing,  swing  rear  end  of 
engine  from  the  tender.  With  an  inside  radial  journal  box 
both  trailer  wheels  must  be  blocked  and  swung  clear  of  rail 
for  a  broken  trailer  tire.  It  is  not  necessary  to  remove 
rods  unless  they  are  bent  or  broken.  Engine  should  be  brought 
to  terminal  light,  running  with  caution  over  frogs  and  switches, 
and  when  entering  or  leaving  passing  tracks.  Special  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  lubrication  of  broken  wheel,  in 
fact  of  all  wheels,  as  there  has  been  a  redistribution  of  weight. 

Q.  92.  What  is  a  good  method  of  raising  a  wheel  when 
jacks  are  not  available? 

A.  92.     To  run  them  up  on  frogs  or  wedges. 

Q.  93.  How  can  it  be  known  when  the  wedges  are  set  up 
too  tight  and  the  driving  box  sticks,  and  in  what  manner  can 
they  be  pulled  down? 

A.  93.  If  the  wedges  are  set  up  too  tight,  the  boxes  will 
heat,  the  engine  will  ride  hard  and  have  a  rough,  jerky  up- 
and-down  motion.  Pull  them  down  by  the  wedge  bolts  or  if 
stuck  tight,  first  jar  the  wheel  by  running  over  a  nut  on  the 
rail.  If  necessary  loosen  the  pedestal  brace  bolt,  allowing  the 
jaws  to  spread  to  release  the  box. 

Q.  94.     What  are  some  of  the  various  causes  for  pounds? 

A.  94.  Loose  pedestal  braces,  engine  and  rods  out  of  tram, 
wedges  improperly  adjusted,  loose  or  worn  driving  box 
brasses,  loose  side  rod  bushings  or  side  rod  connections,  rod 
brasses  not  keyed  or  in  need  of  reducing,  worn  cross  heads 
or  wrist  pins,  broken  frame,  loose  piston  rod,  loose  cylinder 
key,  rod  loose  in  crosshead,  loose  follower  bolts  or  an  im- 
pediment in  the  cylinder. 

Q.  95.  How  may  a  pound  in  driving  boxes,  wedges  or  rod 
brasses  be  located,  and  after  locating  what  should  be  done? 

A.  95.  By  placing  the  right  main  pin  on  the  upper  for- 
ward eighth,  which  brings  the  left  main  pin  to  the  upper  back 
eighth.  Then  by  blocking  the  drivers,  giving  the  cylinders  a 
little  steam  and  reversing  the  engine  under  pressure,  both 
sides  can  be  tested  at  the  same  time.  Would  adjust  wedges 
or  rod  brasses  at  once  if  possible,  reporting  repairs  needed  at 
destination. 

Q.  96.     How  locate  loose  follower  bolts? 

A.  96.  Allow  engine  to  drift  by  shutting  off  steam.  When 
the  loose  follower  bolt  strikes  a  forward  cylinder  head  as  the 
engine  passes  the  forward  center  on  that  side,  there  will  be 
a  pound  in  the  cylinder.  If  the  pound  stops  when  the  engine 
is  given  steam  while  still  moving  there  is  likely  to  be  a  loose 
or  broken  follower  bolt.  When  working  steam  the  com- 
pression or  preadmission  takes  up  the  lost  motion  in  the  rod 
and  connections,  so  the  loose  bolt  does  not  strike  the  head. 


554  EXAMINATIONS. 

The  piston  travels  the  extra  amount  of  this  lost  motion  and  the 
bolt  strikes  the  head  when  steam  is  shut  off. 

Q.  97.  When  should  crossheads  or  guides  be  reported  to  be 
lined? 

A.  97.  When  there  is  sufficient  lost  motion  between  cross- 
head  and  guides  to  cause  a  jumping  motion  when  the  pin  is 
leaving  either  dead  center  and  the  crosshead  is  beginning  the 
return  stroke,  or  when  there  is  lost  motion  between  the  cross- 
head  and  the  guide  at  the  sides. 

Q.  98.  When  should  driving  box  wedges  be  reported  to  be 
lined? 

A.  98.  When  the  wedge  has  been  forced  up  as  high  as  It 
can  go  and  lost  motion  appears  between  wedge  and  box.  It 
should  then  be  reported  lined  down.  Any  excessive  flange  wear 
should  be  reported  at  this  time. 

Q.  99.  When  should  rod  brasses  be  reported  to  be  reduced? 
When  to  be  lined? 

A.  99.  When  there  is  sufficient  lost  motion  to  cause  pound- 
ing. When  the  key  is  down  to  a  point  where  it  cannot  be 
forced  down  further  to  prevent  the  brass  working  in  the 
strap. 

Q.  100.  When  should  lost  motion  between  engine  and  ten- 
der be  taken  up? 

A.  100.  When  the  lost  motion  becomes  great  enough  to 
endanger  the  breaking  of  connections. 

Q.  101.  How  do  you  proceed  to  pack  a  driving  boK  equipped 
with  a  grease  cellar? 

A.  101.  The  filling  plate  on  the  inside  of  the  cellar  should 
be  removed.  Pull  down  the  indicators  and  follower  plates, 
and  fill  the  space  between  the  follower  plate  and  perforated 
plate  with  grease.  Then  replace  the  filling  plate  on  the  inside 
of  the  cellar,  allowing  the  spring  and  follower  plate  to  force 
the  grease  through  the  perforated   plate  to  the  journal. 

Q.  102.  Please  explain  the  principle  on  which  an  injector 
works? 

A.  102.  It  operates  on  the  principle  of  induced  currents, 
coupled  with  velocity;  a  jet  of  steam  flowing  through  the 
injector  first  creates  a  partial  vacuum,  whereupon  the  water 
in  the  tank,  being  acted  upon  by  atmospheric  pressure,  is 
forced  into  the  injector  and  out  of  the  overflow.  When  this 
condition  is  reached  the  injector  is  said  to  be  primed.  If, 
now,  more  steam  is  admitted  to  the  injector,  the  increased 
jet  or  volume  of  steam  combines  with  the  water  and  imparts 
to  it  a  portion  of  its  velocity,  giving  to  the  water  sufl5cient 
momentum,  which  added  to  the  weight  of  the  water,  over- 
comes the  pressure  in  the  boiler. 


EXAMINATIONS.  555 

Q.  103.  Explain  the  passage  of  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the 
steam  heat  pipe? 

A.  103.  Steam  is  admitted  to  the  steam  heat  pipe  and 
passes  at  reduced  pressure  through  a  reducing  valve  therein 
into  the  steam  heat  pipe  beneath  the  entire  length  of  the 
train.  The  reducing  valve  is  located  in  the  cab  near  the 
steam  heat  throttle. 

Q.  104.  If  the  steam  heat  gauge  shows  proper  pressure, 
but  the  steam  heat  pipe  pressure  appears  to  be  low,  what 
should  be  done? 

A.  104.  There  may  be  an  obstruction  in  the  pipe.  Make 
sure  that  the  connections  on  the  cars  were  all  coupled  and 
their  respective  valves  opened  to  the  rear  end  of  train.  If 
no  steam  appeared  at  rear  car,  examine  each  angle  cock  or 
valve,  and,  if  they  were  open,  look  for  the  trouble  at  the  regu- 
lator reducing  valve. 

Q.  105.  What  is  the  cause  of  failure  with  the  second  in- 
jector, and  what  should  be  done  to  obviate  this  failure? 

A.  105.  Neglect  and  infrequent  use.  It  should  be  looked 
after  and  worked  daily  otherwise  scale  or  mud  may  clog  the 
boiler  check  and  joints  will  work  loose.  Test  it  often  and 
work  regularly. 

Q.  106.  If  an  injector  stops  working  while  on  the  road, 
what  should  you  do? 

A.  106.  Would  see  if  there  was  enough  water  in  the  tender 
and  tender  valve  open  and  that  water  was  cool  enough  in  the 
tender  so  the  injector  would  handle  it.  See  that  the  feed  pipe 
or  strainer  was  free  and  that  there  were  no  leaks  in  feed  pipes 
and  that  injector  was  being  supplied  with  the  required  amount 
of  steam.  If  the  injector  would  not  prime,  note  if  overflow 
or  heater  valve  could  open  wide,  or  if  overflow  pipe  was 
obstructed.  Blow  water  back  into  tank  if  suction  pipe  is  very 
hot  and  let  suction  fill  with  cold  water.  Look  for  obstruction 
in  the  steam  priming  tube  and  water  tubes,  if  possible.  If 
it  primes  and  fails  to  deliver  water  to  the  boiler,  see  that 
the  delivery  tube  is  free  from  obstruction  and  then  look  for 
trouble  at  the  boiler  check.  With  an  obstruction  in  the  tubes 
the  injector  will  stop  working  at  once,  while  filling  up  with 
scale,  or  wear  of  the  tubes  would  gradually  affect  the  injector. 

Q.  107.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  combination  boiler 
check  and  stop  valve? 

A.  107.  Its  advantages  are  that  the  boiler  pressure  can  be 
shut  off  at  will  and  the  check  repaired  without  cooling  the 
boiler,  and  that  it  reduces  the  number  of  boiler  check  and 
injector  failures.  This  hand  operated  valve  can  be  closed  to 
prevent  the  boiler  water  passing  back  in  case  the  check  valve 


55C  EXAMINATIONS. 

sticks  up  and  allows'the  boiler  water'toTpass  back  to  the  in- 
jector when  not  working. 

Q.  108.  How  can  a  disconnected  tank  valve  be  opened 
without  stopping? 

A.  108.  By  closing  the  heater  valve  and  forcing  the  steam 
from  injector  back  into  the  tank  to  dislodge  the  valve. 

Q.  109.  What  comprises  the  steam  heat  equipment  on  a 
locomotive? 

A.  109.  At  the  boiler  there  is  located  a  globe  valve  throttle, 
a  reducing  valve,  a  steam  gauge  connected  to  the  steam  heat 
pipe  and  its  necessary  piping  and  hose  connections. 

Q.  110.  What  pressure  is  carried  in  the  steam  heat  pipe, 
and  how  is  it  controlled? 

A.  110.  It  depends  on  the  length  of  the  train;  from  twenty- 
five  to  sixty  pounds  in  the  train  pipe.  The  regulating  valve 
controls  the  pressure. 

Q.  Ill,  What  would  you  do  in  case  the  regulating  valve 
failed  to  operate? 

A.  111.  If  the  regulating  valve  will  not  admit  suflBcient 
steam  to  the  train  pipe,  it  should  be  taken  apart  and  the  steam 
valve  blocked  open.  If  the  pressure  ran  too  high  in  the  steam 
heat  train  pipe,  control  it  by  using  the  steam  throttle  at  the 
boiler  head. 

Q.  112.  How  does  the  steam  heat  reducing  valve  control 
the  pressure? 

A.  112.  The  inlet  valve  for  live  steam  is  opened  and  closed 
by  the  movement  of  a  diaphragm  (made  of  metal)  in  the  valve 
which  is  opened  by  a  spring  pressure  on  one  side  and  closed 
by  a  steam  pressure  on  the  other.  By  stiffening  the  spring 
it  will  carry  more  pressure,  by  weakening  it,  it  will  carry  less, 
which  are  effected  by  turning  the  handle  attached  to  this  spring 
either  up  or  down. 

Q.  113.  If  steam  heat  gauge  showed  the  required  pressure 
and  cars  were  not  being  heated  properly,  how  would  you  pro- 
ceed to  locate  the  trouble? 

A.  113.  To  test  the  gauge  note  where  the  hand  on  the 
steam  heat  gauge  stands  when  the  steam  is  shut  off.  If  it  don't 
drop  back  to  zero,  ascertain  how  much  it  lacks  and  note  the 
rise  of  pressure  shown  by  the  gauge  with  the  steam  turned 
on.  Pay  no  attention  to  the  gauge  if  it  is  not  correct  but  send 
back  steam  sufficient  to  heat  the  train.  If  gauge  is  found  to 
be  correct,  to  locate  trouble,  disconnect  the  hose  between  the 
engine  and  first  car,  and  if  steam  does  not  appear,  look  for  the 
trouble  on  steam  heat  line  on  engine  or  at  the  regulator  re- 
ducing valve,  and  if  steam  does  appear,  disconnect  the  hose 
and  test  between  the  different  cars  until  the  trouble  is  located. 

Q.  114.  When  engine  is  detached  from  the  train,  what 
precaution  should  you  take  to  prevent  freezing  of  the  steam 


EXAMINATIONS.  557 

heat  train  pipe?  Wliat  to  prevent  damage  of  steam  heat 
hose? 

A.  114.  The  steam  heat  throttle  should  be  opened  suffi- 
ciently to  cause  a  circulation  of  steam  through  the  pipes  on 
the  engine  and  tender  so  as  to  prevent  their  freezing.  As 
the  end  of  the  hose  is  liable  to  strike  crossings  or  frogs  it 
should  be  swung  up  to  a  safe  place. 

Q.  115.     What  constitutes  abuse  of  an  engine? 

A.  115.  Abuse  of  an  engine  consists  in  neglecting  to  inspect 
it  and  report  the  necessary  work;  allowing  wedges  and  rod 
brasses  to  run  slack,  nuts  and  bolts  to  become  loose  and  lost; 
failing  to  oil  properly;  carrying  too  much  water;  working  the 
engine  unnecessarily  hard;  reversing  under  pressure  and  espe- 
cially when  driver  brakes  are  set;  slipping;  using  sand  on  one 
Bide  and  using  sand  when  slipping  without  closing  the  throttle; 
pulling  or  tearing  holes  in  the  fire;  irregular  boiler  feeding; 
and  poor  firing. 

Q.  116.     How  are  accidents  and  breakdowns  best  prevented? 

A.  116.  By  frequent  and  careful  inspection  before  starting 
and  during  each  trip,  by  keeping  water  at  the  proper  level 
in  the  boiler  and  all  parts  properly  adjusted,  and  by  a  care- 
ful handling  of  engine  and  train.  Making  repairs  after  acci- 
dents occur  is  much  more  expensive  than  using  care  to  pre- 
vent them. 

Q.  117.  What  are  the  duties  of  an  engine  man  when  leaving 
the  engine  at  the  terminal? 

A.  117.  The  engine  should  be  left  in  a  place  known  to  the 
hostler;  throttle  should  be  left  securely  closed,  lubricator  feeds 
to  steam  chest  and  cylinders  closed,  cylinder  cocks  open, 
reverse  lever  in  center  notch.  Sufficient  fire  to  maintain  steam 
pressure  until  such  time  as  fire  is  knocked  out  and  boiler 
should  be  full  of  water.  Fireman's  attention  should  be  called 
to  anything  of  special  importance.  Make  a  thorough  inspec- 
tion of  engine  and  make  a  full  report  of  any  tools  or  signals 
lost  on  the  trip  and  the  entire  condition  of  the  engine. 

Q.  118.  What  is  the  most  important  bolt  or  nut  on  the 
locomotive? 

A.  118.  The  one  that  is  loose,  and  attention  should  be  given 
it  immediately. 

Q.  119.  In  reporting  work  on  an  engine,  is  it  sufficient  to 
do  it  in  a  general  way,  such  as  saying,  "Injector  won't  work," 
"lubricator  won't  work,"  "engine  won't  steam,"  "engine  blows," 
etc.?  Or  would  you  report  each  special  defect  so  it  could  be 
located  after  the  engine  went  into  the  roundhouse,  whether 
she  had  steam  up  or  not? 

A.  119.  No,  the  report  should  be  explicit  and  assign  the 
cause  for  every  failure,  so  as  to  assist  the  shop  force  in  remedy- 


558  EXAMIXATIONS. 

ing  the  defect,  whether  there  is  steam  in  the  boiler  or  not  at 
the  time  repairs  are  to  be  made.  Make  a  test  to  locate  the 
blow  if  engine  blows  and  give  a  correct  report.  Any  unusual 
feature  in  the  operation  of  the  engine  should  always  be  reported. 

COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Q.  1.  Wherein  do  compound  locomotives  differ  from  ordi- 
nary or  simple  ones? 

A.  1.  Compound  locomotives  differ  from  the  ordinary  type 
in  that  a  simple  engine  has  but  one  set  of  cylinders  of  the  same 
diameter  and  uses  the  steam  but  once,  while  a  compound 
or  double  expansion  engine  has  either  two  or  four  cylinders 
of  varying  diameters,  and  the  steam  after  passing  through 
the  first  cylinder  and  losing  part  of  its  energy  passes  into 
the  second  cylinder,  where  a  certain  amount  of  its  remaining 
energy  is  used.  Simple  and  compound  engines  consist  of 
two  engines,  coupled  to  the  same  set  of  driving  wheels.  Bal- 
anced compounds  have  four  sets  of  main  rods  and  crank  pins 
and  Mallet  compounds  have  two  complete  sets  of  engines  under 
one  boiler. 

Q.  2.  Why  is  one  cylinder  on  a  compound  locomotive  called 
the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  the  other  one  the  low-pressure 
cylinder? 

A.  2.  Because  the  high-pressure  cylinder  takes  its  steam 
directly  from  the  boiler  at  nearly  initial  boiler  pressure,  while 
the  low-pressure  cylinder,  under  ordinary  conditions  receives 
the  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  works  with  a 
low  pressure.  It  is  always  larger  than  the  high-pressure  cyl- 
inder in  order  to  get  the  same  power  from  the  low-pressure 
steam. 

Q.  3.  In  the  Schenectady  two-cylinder  compound  what  is 
the  duty  of  the  oil  dash-pot? 

A.  3.  To  insure  a  steady  movement  of  the  Intercepting 
valve  without  shock  which  might  damage  the  valve  or  seat, 
and  in  order  to  keep  it  working  properly  the  oil  dash-pot 
should  be  kept  full  of  oil. 

Q.  4.  Explain  how  a  Schenectady  two-cylinder  compound 
may  be  operated  as  a  simple  engine? 

A.  4.  Place  the  handle  of  the  three-way  cock  so  as  to  allow 
air  pressure  to  flow  from  the  main  reservoir  to  the  cylinder  of 
the  separate  exhaust  valve.  This  will  open  the  separate  ex- 
haust valve  and  let  the  steam  from  the  high-pressure  cylinder 
exhaust  to  atmosphere.  The  intercepting  valve  will  allow  live 
steam  to  feed  through  the  reducing  valve  at  a  reduced  pressure 
to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  when  the  separate  exhaust  valve 
is  open.    When  starting  a  train  or  when  moving  slowly  and 


EZAMIXATIOyS.  559 

about  to  stall  on  a  grade,  it  should  be  operated  as  a  simple 
engine.  It  should  not  be  operated  as  simple  when  running  at 
high  speed. 

Q.  5.  Explain  how  a  two-cylinder  compound  is  changed 
from  simple  to  compound? 

A.  5.  Place  the  handle  of  the  three-way  cock  in  the  cab  so 
as  to  release  the  air  from  the  cylinder  of  the  separate  exhaust 
valve.  A  coil  spring  will  then  close  this  valve,  causing  the 
exhaust  steam  of  the  high-pressure  cylinder  to  accumulate  in 
the  receiver  until  sufficient  pressure  is  obtained  to  force  the 
intercepting  valve  into  compound  position,  thereby  shutting 
off  live  steam  from  the  main  throttle  to  the  low-pressure  cyl- 
inder and  opening  a  passage,  so  steam  from  the  receiver  will 
feed  to  the  low-pressure  steam  chest. 

Q.  6.     How  should  a  compound  engine  be  lubricated? 

A.  6.  In  lubricating  a  compound  engine  one-third  more 
oil  should  be  fed  to  the  high  than  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder, 
and  at  high  speed  more  oil  should  be  fed  than  at  low  speed. 

Q.  7.  Why  feed  more  oil  to  high  than  to  a  low-pressure 
cylinder? 

A.  7.  Because  some  of  the  oil  from  the  high-pressure 
cylinder  follows  the  steam  into  the  low-pressure  cylinder. 

Q.  8.  How  would  you  lubricate  the  valve  of  low-pressure 
cylinder  if  the  oil  feed  became  inoperative  on  that  side? 

A.  S.  Feed  an  increased  quantity  through  oil  pipe  connect- 
ing to  intercepting  valve,  then  by  shutting  engine  off  occas- 
ionally and  cutting  into  simple  position,  oil  will  go  direct 
from  intercepting  valve  into  low-pressure  steam  chest  and 
cylinder.  This  would  avoid  going  out  on  steam  chest  and  dis- 
connecting pipe  and  oil  by  hand. 

Q.  9.  How  much  water  should  be  carried  in  the  boiler  of  a 
compound  locomotive? 

A.  9.  Not  more  than  two  gauges  or  about  one-half  of  a 
water  glass.  In  case  of  broken  glass  do  not  allow  water  to 
drop  below  a  flutter  in  top  cock  when  working.  No  more  than 
this  amount  should  be  carried  in  order  to  assure  the  delivery 
of  dry  steam  to  cylinders,  as  wet  steam  is  particularly  injurious 
to  compound  locomotives. 

Q.  10.  How  should  a  compound  locomotive  be  started  with 
a  long  train? 

A.  10.     Always  in  simple  position  with  cylinder  cocks  open. 

Q.  11.  When  drifting  what  should  be  the  position  of  the 
separate  exhaust  valve,  the  cylinder  and  port  cocks? 

A.  11.     Should  be  in  open  position. 

Q.  12.  What  will  cause  two  exhausts  of  air  to  blow  from 
the  three-way  cock  or  simpling  valve  in  the  cab  when  the 
engine  is  being  changed  to  compound? 


560  EXAMINATIONS. 

A.  12.  Exhaust  valve  being  sticky.  When  air  is  first 
discharged  it  does  not  move.  When  it  does  move  the  second 
exhaust  comes. 

Q.  lo.  What  does  steam  blowing  at  the  three-way  cock  indi- 
cate? 

A.  13.  The  separate  exhaust  valve  not  seating  properly, 
caused  by  stuck  valves,  weak  or  broken  spring,  and  the  packing 
rings  of  separate  exhaust  valve  leaking. 

Q.  14.  What  can  be  done  if  the  engine  will  not  operate 
compound  when  the  air  pressure  in  the  separate  exhaust  valve 
is  released  by  the  three-way  cock? 

A.  14.  The  cause  of  this  is  the  separate  exhaust  valve  fail- 
ing to  close.  Try  tapping  it  with  hammer  on  the  front  of  the 
saddle  near  the  exhaust  valve.  In  case  this  will  not  cause  the 
valve  to  close,  disconnect  the  air  pipe  connection  to  the  separate 
exhaust  valve,  take  the  nuts  off  the  center  circle  of  studs  around 
the  separate  exhaust  valve,  pull  out  the  casting,  and,  if  the 
valve  is  not  broken,  it  can  be  closed  and  replaced. 

Q.  15.  If  the  engine  stands  with  high  pressure  side  on  the 
dead  center  and  will  not  move  when  given  steam,  where  is 
the  trouble,  and  what  may  be  done  to  start  the  engine?    Why? 

A.  15.  Intercepting  valve  is  stuck  in  compound  position  so 
live  steam  cannot  get  to  the  low  pressure  cylinder.  In  a  case 
of  this  kind,  close  the  main  throttle,  open  the  cylinder  and  port 
cocks  and  when  all  pressure  is  relieved,  use  a  bar  to  shove  for- 
ward the  rod  that  works  through  the  oil  dash  pot;  this  will 
move  the  intercepting  valve  to  the  simple  position,  admitting 
steam  to  the  low  pressure  cylinder  as  soon  as  the  throttle  is 
open.  The  engine  will  not  start  for  the  reason  that  with  the 
low  pressure  piston  on  quarter  steam  must  be  admitted  to 
its  cylinder  to  start  the  engine. 

Q.  16.  In  the  event  of  a  breakdown,  how  should  one  dis- 
connect? 

A.  16.  Disconnect  the  same  as  with  a  simple  engine  and 
run  with  the  separate  exhaust  valve  open,  working  engine  sim- 
ple instead  of  compound. 

Q.  17.  What  may  be  done  to  shut  off  steam  pressure  from 
the  steam  chest  and  low-pressure  cylinder? 

A,  17.  Pull  out  as  far  as  it  will  come  the  rod  that  runs 
through  the  oil  dash  pot  and  fasten  it  in  this  position  and  open 
the  separate  exhaust  valve. 

Q.  18.  Is  it  important  that  air  be  pumped  up  on  a  two- 
cylinder  compound  before  the  engine  is  moved?    Why? 

A.  18.  Yes,  it  is  very  important,  because  the  separate 
exhaust  valve  is  opened  by  air  and  the  engine  will  not  operate 
as  a  simple  engine  until  sufficient  air  pressure  is  obtained  to 
open  this  valve. 


EXAM  IN  A  T70  A  S.  561 

Q.  19.     How  are  the  blows  in  a  compound  located? 

A.  19.  Blows  In  a  compound  may  be  located  the  same  as 
in  a  simple  engine  with  the  exception  that  any  blow  on  the 
high  pressure  side  of  engine  will  not  be  heard  when  the  sepa- 
rate exhaust  valve  is  closed.  A  blow  on  the  high  pressure 
side  of  the  engine  will  cause  the  relief  valves  on  the  low  pres- 
sure cylinder  to  pop  when  working  the  engine  with  full  throttle 
compound. 

Q.  20.  What  should  be  done  if  high  pressure  piston  of  a 
cross  compound  is  broken  off  the  rod,  or  if  the  high  pressure 
or  low  pressure  cylinder  head  is  broken? 

A.  20.  Cover  the  ports  on  that  side,  open  the  separate 
exhaust  valve,  and  run  in,  using  live  steam  in  low  pressure 
cylinder  only.  If  high  pressure  cylinder  head  is  broken  off, 
cover  ports  on  that  side,  open  separate  exhaust  and  run  in, 
using  live  steam  on  low  pressure  side  only.  Do  not  take 
down  main  rod,  but  take  out  pop  valves,  front  and  back  heads 
of  cylinder,  and  see  that  the  cylinder  is  properly  oiled.  If 
low  pressure  cylinder  head  is  broken  off,  cover  the  ports  on 
that  side,  open  the  separate  exhaust  valve,  and  run  in  with 
high  pressure  side.  Do  not  take  down  main  rod,  but  see 
that  the  cylinder  is  well  oiled. 

Q.  21.  In  the  event  of  separate  exhaust  valves  failing  to 
work  when  throttle  is  wide  open  what  can  be  done  to  assist 
in  opening? 

A.  21.  Ease  the  throttle  off  very  fine,  which  in  a  moment  or 
two  will  reduce  the  receiver  pressure  so  that  the  separate 
exhaust  valve  will  move.  If  this  does  not  have  the  desired 
effect,  shut  off  entirely,  even  at  the  risk  of  stalling,  as  in  that 
event  train  can  be  started  from  a  dead  stand  with  engine  cut 
into  simple. 

Q.  22.  If  a  transmission  bar  on  a  cross  compound  is  broken, 
what  would  you  do  for  the  right  side?     For  the  left  side? 

A.  22.  If  on  the  right  side,  cover  ports,  fasten  valve  stem, 
take  out  pops  from  cylinder  heads,  open  separate  exhaust 
valve,  and,  leaving  main  rod  up,  run  in  with  high  pressure 
cylinder  only,  looking  carefully  to  its  lubrication;  if  on  the 
left  side,  cover  ports,  fasten  valve  stem,  take  out  pop  valves 
from  cylinder  heads,  open  separate  exhaust  valve,  and  leave 
main  rod  up,  run  in  with  live  steam  on  low  pressure  side 
only. 

Q.  23.  In  the  event  of  a  cross  compound  beginning  to  jerk 
badly  and  cylinder  head  pops  in  low-pressure  cylinder  popping, 
where  would  you  look  for  the  trouble? 

A.  23.  It  would  indicate  that  either  the  high-pressure  valve 
or  the  piston  packing  was  blov/ing  live  steam  through  into  the 


562  EXAMINATIONS. 

receiver,  and  then  into  low-pressure  steam  chest;  determine 
which  and  report  accordingly. 

Q.  24.  If  during  a  trip  you  found  the  piston  valve  rings 
of  a  cross  compound  were  broken  what  would  you  do? 

A.  24.  If  nothing  but  rings  were  broken,  reduce  steam 
pressure  about  25  per  cent,  and  go  on  with  train  if  at  all  pos- 
sible. 

Q.  25.  If  piston  valve  on  cross  compound  was  broken  so 
it  became  necessary  to  remove  it,  what  should  you  do? 

A.  25.  Remove  it,  reduce  boiler  pressure  to  100  pounds, 
and  proceed. 

Q.  26.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  Vauclain  four- 
cylinder  compound,  a  four-cylinder  tandem,  a  balanced  and  a 
Mallet  compound  in  their  arrangement  of  cylinders? 

A.  26.  A  Vauclain  compound  has  two  cylinders  on  each 
side  with  both  piston  rods  connected  to  one  crosshead.  The 
cylinders  are  one  above  the  other.  A  four-cylinder  tandem  has 
four  cylinders,  the  high-pressure  on  each  side,  and  both  pistons 
operated  by  the  same  piston  rod,  and  one  crosshead.  A  bal- 
anced compound  has  four  cylinders,  two  high-pressure  and 
two  low-pressure.  The  high-pressure  cylinders  are  located 
between  the  frames,  both  having  a  main  rod  connected  to  a 
crank  axle;  the  two  low-pressure  cylinders  being  outside  the 
frame,  both  having  a  main  rod  and  crank  pin  attached  to  the 
driving  wheel  center.  A  Mallet  compound  has  four  cylinders- 
two  high-pressure  and  two  low.  It  consists  of  two  separate 
and  complete  engines  under  one  boiler,  the  rear  engine  fixed 
rigidly  to  the  back  end  of  the  boiler,  the  front  engine  swinging 
from  a  center  and  sliding  back  and  forth  under  the  front 
end  of  the  boiler,  and  each  engine  has  two  cylinders  located  on 
the  sides  as  on  simple  locomotives.  The  two  cylinders  of 
rear  engine  are  high  pressure  and  work  boiler  steam  direct, 
exhausting  it  into  a  flexible  pipe  or  receiver;  the  two  cylinders 
of  the  front  engine  are  low-pressure,  and  work  the  exhaust 
steam  from  this  flexible  pipe  or  receiver,  and  then  exhaust  it 
through  stack  to  atmosphere. 

Q.  27.     How  many  main  steam  valves  has  each  type? 

A.  27.  The  Vauclain  has  one  valve  on  either  side  con- 
veying steam  to  the  high  and  low-pressure  cjiinder  on  that 
side;  the  four-cylinder  tandem  has  two  on  either  side,  one  for 
each  of  the  two  cylinders.  The  Baldwin  balanced  compound 
has  the  same  number  of  valves  as  the  Vauclain.  The  Ameri- 
can balanced  compound  has  four  valves,  one  for  every  cyl- 
inder. The  two  valves  for  one  side  of  the  engine  are  connected 
to  one  valve  rod.  The  ]\Iallet  compound  has  separate  valves 
for  each  cylinder,  as  in  a  simple  locomotive. 


EXAMINATIONS.  565 

Q.  28.  How  do  you  test  for  blow  in  high  and  low-pressure 
cylinder  packing  for  each  type  of  compound  engine? 

A.  28.  If  a  cross-compound,  simple  the  engine,  and  make 
test,  the  same  as  for  a  simple  engine.  For  a  Vauclain  four- 
cylinder  compound,  the  low-pressure  should  be  tested  first.  A 
blow  past  the  low  pressure  piston  will  show  the  same  as  on  a 
simple  engine;  a  blow  past  the  high-pressure  piston  makes 
the  engine  more  powerful  on  that  side  with  full  throttle  and 
the  exhaust  from  the  low-pressure  cylinder  will  be  heavier. 
Cover  the  ports  when  testing  valve  on  either  side.  Broken 
packing  rings  in  the  steam  valve  will  show  a  blow  in  one 
position  and  be  tight  in  another  position.  To  test  high-pres- 
sure piston  packing  for  a  tandem  compound,  engine  should 
stand  on  the  top  quarter,  lever  in  back  gear,  starting  valve 
closed  and  drivers  blocked;  remove  back  indicator  plug  or 
open  back  cylinder  cock  of  high-pressure  cylinder.  Steam 
coming  from  the  back  cylinder  cock  must  get  by  the  piston 
packing  or  by-pass  or  starting  valve.  Place  reverse  lever 
ahead  and  try  the  other  indicator  plug  or  cylinder  cock.  If 
the  trouble  is  caused  by  a  leaky  by-pass  valve  in  the  front 
end  no  steam  will  come  through.  The  engine  must  stand 
in  the  same  position  to  test  the  low  pressure  piston  packing 
and  the  lever  must  be  in  position  to  admit  steam  into  the 
front  end  of  high-pressure  cylinder.  Open  starting  valve, 
remove  back  indicator  plug  of  low-pressure  cylinder  and  give 
engine  steam;  steam  coming  from  the  indicator  plug  opening 
or  open  back  cylinder  cock  will  indicate  that  either  packing  or 
by-pass  is  leaking.  To  determine  which  one,  reverse  lever 
should  be  put  in  another  position,  close  back  indicator  plug 
and  open  forward  one;  if  blow  still  continues  the  packing  rings 
or  both  by-pass  valves  are  leaking.  By-pass  valves  should  then 
be  inspected. 

Q.  29.  How  can  the  blow  through  sleeve  packing  between 
high  and  low  pressure  cylinder  of  the  tandem  compound  be 
located? 

A.  29.  Stand  engine  on  the  top  quarter,  set  reverse  lever 
in  forward  gear,  shut  the  starting  valve,  block  the  drivers 
or  set  the  brakes  solid  and  open  throttle.  Steam  cannot  get 
into  the  front  side  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder,  unless  there 
is  a  leak,  until  the  engine  moves.  For  this  test,  the  indicator 
plug  in  front  end  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder  should  be  re- 
moved. 

Q.  30.  How  test  for  piston  packing  blow  with  balanced 
compound? 

A.  30.  To  test  the  high-pressure  piston  packing  on  a 
Baldwin  balanced  compound  the  engine  should  be  placed  with 
the  outside  main  pin  on  that  side  of  the  engine  on  the  bottom 


564  EXAMINATIONS. 

quarter,  the  reverse  lever  in  the  forward  notch,  close  starting 
valve,  block  drivers  or  set  brakes  solid,  remove  indicator  plug 
in  the  front  end  of  either  the  high  or  low-pressure  cylinder. 
Steam  will  be  admitted  to  the  back  end  of  high-pressure 
cylinder  with  the  throttle  thrown  open.  There  will  be  a  leak 
past  the  piston  or  the  high-pressure  valve  if  steam  escapes 
out  of  this  plug  opening.  If  in  doubt,  next  test  the  high 
pressure  valve  by  moving  the  reverse  lever  to  the  center  notch. 
This  should  cover  the  ports  and  if  the  valve  is  tight  the  blow 
will  cease.  Stand  the  engine  in  the  same  position  with  the 
wheels  blocked  in  testing  the  low-pressure  piston,  open  starting 
valve,  back  indicator  plug  out.  When  throttle  is  opened  the 
leaky  packing  will  be  shown  by  steam  escaping  from  the 
plug  opening.  If  in  doubt,  test  valve  by  bringing  reverse 
lever  to  center  of  quadrant;  this  will  spot  valve  over  port  and 
if  it  is  tight  the  blow  will  cease.  A  blow  past  the  high-pres- 
sure packing  tends  to  increase  the  pressure  in  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinder,  in  compound  engines.  A  blow  past  the  low 
pressure  packing  is  heard  at  the  exhaust  and  is  generally 
on  both  forward  and  back  strokes,  while  a  blow  past  the  by- 
pass valves  or  valve  bushings  occurs  only  at  a  certain  part 
of  a  complete  revolution. 

Q.  31.  In  case  it  was  necessary  to  disconnect  on  one  side 
of  a  compound  engine,  how  would  you  cover  ports  and  hold 
valves  in  position? 

A.  31.  Clamp  the  valve  stem  to  hold  valve  in  central  posi- 
tion. All  ports  should  be  covered  by  doing  this.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  remove  head  of  piston  valve  chest  and  block  in 
there. 

Q.  32.  Is  it  a  disadvantage  to  work  a  compound  engine 
in  short  cut-off?    Why? 

A.  32.*  It  is.  If  cut-off  is  too  short,  steam  passing  the 
throttle  will  not  get  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  in  its  proper 
proportion.  The  work  should  be  divided  between  the  two 
cylinders  on  the  same  side. 

Q.  33.  In  what  way  do  the  IMallet  or  articulated  compounds 
differ  from  the  other  steam  locomotives  in  the  distribution  of 
the  steam? 

A.  33.  It  differs  both  in  construction  and  in  steam  dis- 
tribution. It  consists  of  two  separate  and  independent  engines 
under  one  boiler.  The  rear  engine  is  rigidly  attached  to  the 
back  end  of  the  boiler  in  the  usual  manner.  The  front  engine 
is  not  attached  to  the  boiler,  but  supports  it  by  means  of  sliding 
bearings,  so  that  it  can  move  freely  from  side  to  side  under  the 
boiler  and  pass  curves   more  easily.     There   is   a   hinged   or 


EXAMINATIONS.  565 

articulated  connection  between  the  engines  by  which  the 
front  one  is  permitted  a  limited  swing  in  relation  to  the  rear 
one,  and  it  is  this  feature  which  gives  the  name  "articulated" 
to  this  type  of  locomotive.  The  rear  engine  takes  boiler  steam 
direct,  the  same  as  a  simple  engine,  and  exhausts  it  from 
both  cylinders  into  a  large  pipe  or  receiver.  The  front  engine 
takes  exhaust  steam  from  this  receiver,  works  it  in  a  larger 
set  of  cylinders,  and  then  exhausts  it  to  the  atmosphere  through 
the  stack. 

Q.  34.  How  do  you  get  the  use  of  both  engines  when  start- 
ing a  train? 

A.  34.  In  order  that  there  may  be  steam  in  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinders  before  the  high-pressure  engine  has  exhausted, 
on  some  types  of  the  Mallet  compound  there  is  a  live  steam 
pipe  with  a  valve  in  the  cab,  which  admits  boiler  steam  to  the 
receiver  pipe.  Thus  the  use  of  the  front  engine  is  secured  in 
starting  a  train.  In  the  American  Locomotive  articulated 
compounds  there  is  an  intercepting  valve,  similar  to  the  one 
used  in  the  Richmond  cross-compound  and  is  placed  between 
the  exhaust  passage  of  the  rear  engine  and  the  flexible  receiv- 
ing pipe  of  the  front  one.  When  in  simple  position,  this  inter- 
cepting valve,  permits  the  high  pressure  cylinders  of  the  rear 
engine  to  exhaust  directly  to  the  stack  instead  of  into  the 
receiver,  feeding  boiler  steam  at  a  reduced  pressure  into  the 
receiver  pipe  for  the  low-pi^essure  cylinders,  without  giving 
any  back  pressure  on  the  high-pressure  pistons.  By  this 
arrangement  the  power  of  the  complete  locomotive  is  increased 
twenty  per  cent.  In  compound  position,  the  intercepting  valve 
shuts  off  the  supply  of  live  steam  to  the  receiver  pipe  and  the 
exhaust  steam  is  forced  to  the  low-pressure  engine. 

Q.  35.  How  is  the  American  articulated  compound  changed 
from  compound  to  simple,  and  back  to  compound  again? 

A.  35.  When  working  the  locomotive  simple,  the  handle 
of  the  operating  valve  in  the  cab  should  be  placed  to  point 
toward  the  rear.  Steam  .is  admitted  against  the  piston  which 
operates  the  emergency  exhaust  valve  and  opens  it.  Exhaust 
steam  from  the  high-pressure  engine,  instead  of  passing  to  the 
low-pressure  engine,  passes  to  the  exhaust  nozzle.  The  inter- 
cepting valve  then  moves  over  so  that  live  steam  reduced  to 
forty  per  cent  boiler  pressure  passes  through  the  receiver 
pipe  to  the  low-pressure  engine.  When  working  the  locomo- 
tive compound,  the  handle  of  the  operating  valve  should  be 
placed  to  point  forward.  This  exhausts  the  steam,  holding 
the  emergency  exhaust  valve  open;  by  means  of  a  spring 
and  the  pressure  of  the  steam  exhausted  from  the  rear  engine, 
the  emergency  exhaust  valve  is  closed,  and  a  pressure  built 
up  against   the   intercepting  valve,   which   opens   it,   so   that 


566  EXAMINATIONS. 

steam  from  the  rear  engine  goes  to  the  forward  one,  and  at 
the  same  movement,  closes  the  reducing  valve  so  that  the 
receiver  gets  no  more  live  steam. 

Q.  36.  When  is  it  necessary  to  use  the  operating  valve 
to  change  the  locomotive  from  compound  to  simple,  or  from 
simple  to  compound? 

A.  36.  The  intercepting  valve  should  automatically  go  to 
simple  position  until  exhaust  steam  from  the  rear  engine 
builds  up  a  receiver  pressure  that  shifts  the  valve  to  com- 
pound, when  giving  the  engines  steam  to  start.  Use  the  oper- 
ating valve  if  it  does  not  do  so.  The  engine  should  be  set 
working  simple,  when  about  to  stall  on  a  grade  or  if  moving 
less  than  four  miles  an  hour;  when  the  danger  of  stalling  is 
over,  or  speed  is  more  than  four  miles  an  hour,  change  to  com- 
pound. Open  the  starting  valve  to  admit  live  steam  to  the 
receiver  pipe  and  low-pressure  engine  if  there  is  no  inter- 
cepting valve  to  furnish  live  steam  to  the  forward  engine. 

Q.  37.  If  in  starting  the  locomotive  the  forward  engine 
does  not  take  steam,  what  is  the  trouble? 

A.  37.  On  account  of  being  dirty  the  reducing  valve  may 
be  stuck  shut  or  stuck  on  the  stem  of  the  intercepting  valve. 
Should  the  reducing  valve  be  stuck,  take  off  the  head  of  the 
dash  pot  and  work  the  valve  back  and  forth  to  loosen  it.  Oil 
the  intercepting  valve  freely  just  before  starting  and  occa- 
sionally during  long  runs  to  ke^  it  from  sticking. 

Q.  38.  AVhy  does  the  Mallet  compound  have  more  power 
when  working  simple  than  compound? 

A.  38.  If  a  starting  valve  is  used  to  admit  live  steam  to 
the  receiver  pipe  and  thence  to  the  low  pressure  engine,  it 
gives  a  higher  pressure  to  the  low  pressure  cylinders.  If 
an  intercepting  valve  is  used  the  open  emergency  exhaust 
valve  permits  exhaust  steam  from  the  rear  engine  to  go  direct 
to  the  stack,  taking  away  the  back  pressure  of  the  receiver 
steam  from  the  high-pressure  pistons  about  thirty  per  cent 
of  the  boiler  pressure,  thus  adding  to  the  power  of  the  rear 
engine.  The  reducing  valve  when  feeding  live  steam  gives 
about  forty  per  cent  of  boiler  pressure  to  the  low  pressure 
engine  instead  of  the  thirty  per  cent  it  gets  from  the  receiver. 
The  compound  operation  is  about  twenty  per  cent  less  than  the 
power  of  both  engines  working  simple  with  this  added  power. 

Q.  39.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  by-pass  valves  on  the  sides 
of  the  low-pressure  cylinders?  Should  they  be  kept  clean  of 
gum  and  grit? 

A.  39.  They  are  connected  to  the  steam  ports  at  each  end 
of  the  cylinders  and  open  to  allow  air  and  steam  to  pass  from 
one  end  to  the  other  of  the  cylinder  away  from  the  moving 
piston  when  the  engine  is  drifting.     If  not  kept  clean  they 


EXAMINATIONS.  567 

may  stick  open;  when  working  steam  the  engine  will  blow 
badly,  and  if  they  stick  shut  will  cause  the  engine  to  pound 
when  drifting. 

Q.  40.  In  what  position  should  the  reverse  lever  be  when 
the  steam  is  shut  off  and  the  engine  drifting? 

A.  40.  Below  three  quarters  of  full  gear,  in  order  that  the 
valves  will  have  nearly  full  travel. 

Q.  41.  Why  should  the  power  reversing  gear  of  the  Mallet 
compound  always  have  its  dash-pot  cylinder  full  of  oil? 

A.  41.  To  avoid  the  too  rapid  movement  of  the  reverse  gear 
piston  and  prevent  damaging  it. 

Q.  42.  In  what  position  should  the  engines  stand  to  test 
for  blows  in  valves  and  piston  packing? 

A.  42.  The  operating  or  starting  valve  should  be  in  sim- 
ple position.  "Spot"  the  engine  in  the  proper  position  and 
each  engine  should  be  tested  for  blows  the  same  as  for  a 
simple  engine. 

Q.  43.  What  power  is  used  with  Ragonnet  or  Baldwin 
power  reverse  gear? 

A.  43.     Air  pressure. 

Q.  44.     Can  and  should  steam  pressure  be  used? 

A.  44.  It  can,  but  steam  should  never  be  used  except  in 
an  emergency  when  air  is  not  available. 

Q.  45.  What  precaution  should  be  taken  regarding  steam 
check  and  throttle? 

A.  45.'  They  should  be  tight  and  check  working  properly 
to  prevent  the  steam  from  entering  main  reservoir.  Should 
this  occur  the  steam  would  burn  out  the  gaskets  in  the  air 
brake  equipment;  moisture  would  accumulate  which  would 
result  in  freezing  and  bursting  the  equipment,  besides  being 
dangerous. 

Q.  46.  What  would  cause  the  gear  to  fail  to  hold  links  in 
Intended  cut-off,  and  allow  them  to  raise  stnd  lower  without 
operating  valve  in  the  cab  being  changed? 

A.  46.  This  would  be  caused  by  leaks  in  main  valve  and 
piston  packing. 

LUBRICATION 

Q.  1.  What  produces  friction,  and  what  is  the  result  of 
excessive  friction? 

A.  1.  Friction,  as  considered  in  locomotive  service,  is  the 
rubbing  together  of  any  two  surfaces,  when  held  in  contact 
by  pressure.  The  result  is  heat,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
journal  and  its  bearing,  or  the  roughening  of  the  sliding  sur- 
faces. 

Q.  2.     What  is  lubrication  and  its  object? 


568  EXAMINATIONS. 

A.  2.  The  interposing  of  a  thin  layer  of  lubricant  so  that 
the  surfaces  do  not  actually  touch  each  other,  the  oily  surface 
of  one  part  sliding  with  less  heat  against  the  oily  surface  of 
the  other. 

Q.  3.  What  examinations  should  be  made  by  the  engineer 
to  insure  successful  lubrication? 

A.  3.  Examine  so  as  to  know  that  the  oil  holes  are  open, 
cups  filled  and  in  proper  working  order,  that  packing  in  cellars 
is  put  in  evenly  and  in  contact  with  the  journal.  Also  see 
that  grease  cups  are  filled,  and  that  grease  cellars  contain 
enough  grease  for  the  next  trip.  The  waste  on  top  of  driving 
or  truck  boxes  should  also  be  in  proper  shape. 

Q.  4.     How  should  feeders  of  all  oil  cups  be  adjusted? 

A.  4.  They  should  be  adjusted  according  to  the  work, 
oil  should  be  fed  regularly  to  give  perfect  lubrication,  and  as 
small  a  quantity  as  possilDle  for  perfect  lubrication  used. 

Q.  5.  Why  is  it  bad  practice  to  keep  engine  oil  close  to 
boiler  in  warm  weather? 

A.  5.  It  gets  too  hot  and  will  flow  off  the  bearings  too 
rapidly,  a  hot  bearing  very  often  being  the  result. 

Q.  6.  In  what  manner  would  you  care  for  a  hot  bearing  if 
discovered  on  the  road? 

A.  6.  Take  as  much  time  as  possible  in  cooling  the  bearing, 
carefully  lubricate  all  moving  parts  and  be  sure  that  they  move 
freely  before  proceeding. 

Q.  7.     What  kind  of  oil  should  be  used  on  hot  bearings? 

A.  7.  If  too  hot  to  stand  engine  oil  use  valve  oil  while 
bearing  is  warm  enough  to  make  it  flow.  To  avoid  reheating, 
the  valve  oil  must  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  bearing  cools. 

Q.  8.     At  completion  of  trip  what  is  necessary? 

A.  8.  Shut  off  the  lubricator  and  all  bottom  feed  oil  cups, 
feel  of  all  bearings  and  pins  and  report  any  that  are  running 
hot. 

Q.  9.  How  would  you  determine  what  boxes  to  report 
examined?    Why  not  report  all  boxes  examined? 

A.  9.  Placing  the  hand  on  driving  box,  on  hub  of  engine 
truck  wheel  and  on  top  of  tender  truck  boxes  nearest  the  brass, 
shows  which  are  too  hot.  Unless  the  temperature  was  above 
running  heat  would  not  report  them  examined. 

Q.IO.  Why  is  it  bad  practice  to  disturb  the  packing  on  top 
of  driving  and  engine  truck  boxes  with  spout  of  oil  can  when 
oiling  engine? 

A.  10.  It  stirs  up  the  dirt,  cinders  and  sand  and  is  liable 
to  get  them  down  on  the  bearings,  as  well  as  feed  the  oil  away 
too  quickly.  This  packing  is  placed  on  top  of  boxes  to  help 
keep  the  dirt  and  dust  out  of  oil  holes,  and  to  aid  in  gradual 
lubrication  from  the  top. 


EXAMINATIONS.  569 

Q.  11.     How  do  you  adjust  grease  cups  as  applied  to  rods? 

A.  11.  By  screwing  down  the  compression  plug  until  a 
slight  resistance  from  the  grease  is  felt.  When  grease  shows 
between  brass  and  pin,  then  stop.  This  should  be  sufficient 
over  the  division. 

Q.  12.     Is  it  usual  for  pins  to  run  warm  when  using  grease? 

A.  12.  Yes.  The  grease  must  melt  and  become  practically 
an  oil  in  order  to  lubricate  freely. 

Q.  13.     What  effect  does  too  much  pressure  produce? 

A.  13.  It  wastes  the  grease  and  increases  the  friction 
until  the  surplus  amount  is  worked  out  so  that  the  bearing 
can  run  free  on  its  journal. 

Q.  14.  Is  it  necessary  to  use  oil  with  grease  on  crank 
pins? 

A.  14.     No. 

Q.  15.  When  an  engine  is  equipped  with  Elvin  driving 
box  lubricator,  how  can  you  tell  whether  a  sufficient  amount 
of  lubricant  is  in  the  grease  receptacle? 

A.  15.  By  the  indicator  wire  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the 
grease  cellar,  which  shows  the  amount  of  grease  left  in  the 
cellar. 

Q.  16.  Why  should  engine  oil  not  be  used  on  valves  and  cyl- 
inders? 

A.  16.  Because  it  will  vaporize  and  become  like  a  gas  which 
has  no  lubricating  qualities  at  such  a  high  temperature  as  that 
of  the  steam. 

Q.  17.  At  what  temperature  does  engine  oil  lose  its  lubri- 
cating qualities?    At  what  temperature  for  valve  oil? 

A.  17.  Either  oil  loses  its  lubricating  qualities  before  reach- 
ing its  flash  point.  The  flash  point  of  engine  oil  is  from  250 
to  350  degrees  F.,  that  of  valve  oil  from  500  to  600  degrees  P., 
depending  on  the  quality  of  the  oil.  Steam  at  120  pounds  has 
a  temperature  of  about  350  degrees  F.,  which  is  above  the 
flash  test  of  engine  oil;  steam  at  235  pounds  has  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  431  degrees  F.,  which  is  much  below  the  flash 
test  of  valve  oil.  Where  superheated  steam  is  used  and  the 
temperature  is  600  degrees  F.  and  more,  a  higher  grade  of 
valve  oil  with  a  higher  flash  test  is  required. 

Q.  18.  How  and  by  what  means  are  Valves,  cylinders  and  the 
steam  end  of  air  pumps  lubricated? 

A.  18.     By  hydrostatic   lubricator  with   sight-feed. 

Q.  19.  What  is  the  principle  on  which  a  lubricator  oper- 
ates?   How  does  the  oil  get  from  the  cup  to  the  steam  chest? 

A.  19.  Steam  being  admitted  to  the  condenser  condenses 
and  th*^  watrr  of  condensation  flows  through  the  water  pipe, 
when  the  water  valve  is  open,  to  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir; 
the  oil  being  lighter  than  the  water  remains  on  top  and  at  such 


570  EXAMINATIONS. 

a  height  that  it  can  flow  downward  through  the  oil  tubes  to  the 
regulating  feed  valves;  when  the  feed  valves  are  open,  the  oil 
passes  out  of  the  feed  nozzles  in  the  form  of  drops,  flowing 
upward  through  the  sight-feed  glasses,  where  it  is  met  by  a 
small  current  of  steam  from  the  condenser,  through  the  equal- 
izing pipes  which  forces  the  oil  through  the  choke  plugs  into 
the  oil  pipes  and  thence  into  the  steam  chests.    . 

Q.  20.     How  should  the  lubricator  be  filled? 

A.  20.  Close  all  valves  connected  with  the  lubricator,  re- 
move filling  plug,  open  the  drain  cock  and  draw  off  the  water 
only.  Then' close  drain  plug.  Fill  the  oil  tank  in  the  regular 
way,  taking  ^are  not  to  overflow  it;  replace  filling  plug.  If 
there  is  not  enough  oil  to  fill  the  lubricator  water  may  be 
used,  as  the  lubricator  will  begin  feeding  sooner  when  full? 

Q.  21.     After  filling  lubricator,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  21.  Open  wide  the  steam  throttle  to  the  lubricator,  then 
carefully  open  water  valves.  Open  feeds  as  required  but  not 
until  sure  the  chamber  in  the  glasses  is  filled  with  water. 

Q.  22.  How  long  before  leaving  terminal  should  the  feed 
valves  be  opened?    Why? 

A.  22.  About  fifteen  minutes.  This  should  be  sufficient 
time  to  allow  oil  to  feed  through  the  oil  pipe  to  the  steam 
chests. 

Q.  23.     How  many  drops  should  be  fed  per  minute? 

A.  23.  From  one  to  seven  drops  per  minute  for  cylinders, 
depending  upon  conditions,  timed  by  the  watch.  Large  cyl- 
inders require  more  oil  than  smaller  ones.  About  one  drop 
per  minute  should  be  fed  to  the  air  pump. 

Q.  24.  If  lubricator  feeds  regularly  when  working  steam 
and  too  rapidly  after  shutting  off,  what  is  the  trouble? 

A.  24.  This  is  due  to  too  large  an  opening  in  the  choke 
plug  at  the  lubricator  or  through  the  steam  valves  at  the 
steam  chest.  Reduce  to  proper  size  by  applying  new  chokes 
or  valves. 

Q,  25.  When  valves  appear  dry  while  using  steam  and  the 
lubricator  is  working  all  right,  what  would  you  do  to  relieve 
these  conditions? 

A.  25.  Ease  off  on  the  throttle  a  few  seconds  to  reduce 
steam  chest  pressure  anti  drop  the  reverse  lever  a  few  notches, 
giving  the  valve  a  longer  travel.  Oil  held  in  the  pipes  will 
then  flow  down. 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS   AND  ANSWERS   ON   ELECTRIC 
HEADLIGHTS. 

Q.  1.  Describe  the  passage  of  the  current  through  the  lamp 
and  tell  how  arc  light  is  formed. 


EXAMINATIONS.  571 

A.  1.  The  current  flowing  from  the  dynamo  is  called  the 
positive  current  and  enters  the  lamp  at  the  binding  post, 
thence  through  a  No.  8  insulated  copper  wire  to  the  bracket, 
thence  through  connections  to  carbon;  then  down  through  the 
copper  electrode  and  holder  to  a  No.  8  insulated  copper  wire, 
through  the  solenoid  then  to  the  binding  post  and  back  to  the 
dynamo. 

As  soon  as  current  passes  through  the  solenoid,  it  attracts 
the  armature  which  in  turn  is  connected  with  the  levers  which 
clutch  the  carbon  and  separate  it  from  the  point  of  the  copper 
electrode.  The  current  jumping  this  space,  from  the  carbon 
to  the  electrode  creates  the  light,  the  distance  between  the 
points  being  regulated  by  current  flowing  through  the  solenoid. 
A  solenoid  is  a  coil  of  wires  and  when  energized  by  a  current 
flowing  through  them,  acts  as  a  magnet. 

Q.  2.  Why  should  sandpaper  be  used  to  smooth  commutator 
instead  of  emery  cloth? 

A.  2.  Sand  under  these  conditions  is  a  non-conductor  while 
emery  is  a  conductor  of  the  electric  current  and  should  a  piece 
of  the  emery  lodge  between  thfi  bars  of  the  commutator,  it 
would  result  in  a  short  circuit.  Emery  will  embed  in  the 
copper  and  cut  the  brushes,  while  sand  will  not  do  so. 

Q.  3.     State  how  you  would  go  about  to  focus  a  lamp? 

A.  3.  (1)  Adjust  back  of  reflector  so  front  edge  will 
be  parallel  with  front  edge  of  case. 

(2)  Adjust  lamp  to  have  point  of  copper  as  near  center 
of  reflector  as  possible. 

(3)  Have  carbon  as  near  center  of  chimney  hole  in  re- 
flector as  possible. 

(4)  Have  locomotives  on  straight  track  and  move  lamp 
until  you  get  best  results  on  track.  The  light  should  be  re- 
flected in  parallel  rays  and  in  as  small  a  space  as  possible. 

To  lower  light  on  track,  raise  lamp. 

To  raise  light  on  track,  lower  lamp. 

Q.  4.  If  the  light  throws  shadows  upon  the  track,  is  it 
properly  focused? 

A.  4.     No. 

Q.  5.  If  the  light  is  properly  focused,  that  is,  if  the  rays 
are  leaving  the  reflector  in  parallel  lines,  but  the  light  does 
not  strike  the  center  of  the  track,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  5. '  Shift  entire  case  on  base  board. 

Q.  6.  What  can  you  do  to  insure  a  good  and  unfailing 
light  for  the  entire  trip? 

A.  6.  The  entire  equipment  should  be  carefully  inspected 
before  starting  on  each  trip  to  know  that  there  are  no  wires 
with  insulation  chafed  or  worn  off;  see  that  all  screws  and 
connections  are  tight;  that  commutator  is  clean,  and  brushes 


572  EXAMINATIONS. 

set  In  holder  in  the  correct  way.  Carbon  of  sufficient  length 
to  complete  the  trip  should  be  in  the  lamp,  the  copper  electrode 
cleaned  and  oil  in  both  bearings. 

Q.  7.  Why  would  you  not  fill  the  main  oil  cellar  full  of 
oil? 

A.  7.  It  will  be  thrown  out  of  the  ends  of  the  cellar  by  the 
motion  of  the  engine  and  might  ruin  the  armature. 

Q.  8.     What  is  the  most  vital  part  of  the  dynamo? 

A.  8.     The  commutator. 

Q.  9.  What  care  and  attention  should  be  given  the  com- 
mutator? 

A.  9.  The  brushes  should  be  examined  as  to  bearing,  sur- 
face and  tension,  the  mica  between  the  copper  strips  should 
always  be  a  trifle  below  the  surface,  and  the  commutator 
clean. 

Q.  10.     How  should  you  clean  the  commutator,  and  when? 

A.  10.  The  commutator  should  be  cleaned  each  trip  with 
a  piece  of  damp  waste  not  wet,  rubbing  endwise  so  as  to  keep 
the  creases  clean  where  mica  is  filed  out.     Wipe  dry. 

Q.  11.  What  kind  of  a  bearing  should  the  brush  have  on 
the  commutator? 

A.  11.  They  should  fit  perfectly  on  the  commutator;  with 
bearings  covering  no  less  than  two,  nor  more  than  three  of  the 
commutator  bars. 

Q.12.     How  are  the  brushes  fitted? 

A.  12.  Take  a  piece  of  fine  O  sand  paper  and  introduce 
between  the  brush  and  commutator  and  draw  in  the  direction 
of  the  rotation  of  commutator  until  the  brush  fits  perfectly. 
Do  not  saw  sand  paper  back  and  forth,  pull  it  in  one  direction 
only. 

Q.  13.  Is  it  advisable  to  ever  try  to  fit  a  brush  up  with  a 
file  or  knife? 

A.  13.     It  is  not. 

Q.  14.  Why  is  it  important  to  clean  the  scale  off  the 
point  of  the  copper  electrode  each  trip? 

A.  14.  The  current  will  not  pass  through  this  scale,  and 
to  allow  the  point  of  the  carbon  and  the  electrode  to  touch  to 
form  a  circuit,  it  must  be  removed. 

Q.  15.  How  should  the  copper  electrode  be  trimmed  at  the 
point? 

A.  15.  Should  be  trimmed  with  a  piece  of  emery  cloth  to 
a  rounding  point  having  about  Vt  inch  surface. 

Q.  16.  How  far  should  the  copper  electrode  project  above 
the  holder? 

A.  16.     One  inch. 

Q.  17.  Should  the  electrode  be  raised  up  to  lij  inches, 
what  might  happen? 


EXAMINATIONS.  573 

A.  17.  So  much  heat  -would  be  generated  on  the  clutch  that 
It  would  result  in  a  lamp  failure. 

Q.  18.  If  the  dash  pot  should  be  found  stuck,  would  you  put 
oil  in  it? 

A.  18.  Cut  the  dirt  from  out  of  the  pot  and  off  the  plunger 
with  coal  oil,  wiping  off  all  oil  after  cleaning  as  it  would  cause 
the  plunger  to  collect  dirt  and  stick. 

Q.  19.  If  one  carbon  of  lamp  should  "jig  or  pound,"  what 
can  be  done  to  stop  it? 

A.  19.  This  is  caused  by  the  iron  armature  being  too  far 
out  of  the  solenoid,  or  speed  too  low. 

Q.  20.  Does  the  pounding  of  the  lamp  occur  with  the  old 
series  wound  machines  or  with  the  new  compound  wound 
machines? 

A.  20.  Occurs  more  with  the  old  series  wound  as  the  com- 
pound winding  gives  a  steadier  voltage. 

Q.  21.  If  the  copper  electrode  was  fusing,  how  would  you 
know  it? 

A.  21.  The  rapid  burning  of  the  copper  would  change  the 
color  of  the  light  to  green,  instead  of  a  shaft  of  white  light. 

Q.  22.     What  should  be  done  when  a  green  light  is  seen? 

A.  22.  Steam  should  be  throttled  at  once,  then  opened 
slowly  until  a  white  light  reappears. 

Q.  23.     What  is  the  cause  of  the  copper  electrode  fusing? 

A.  23.  May  be  caused  by  speed  of  dynamo  being  too  high 
or  by  the  wires  from  dynamo  to  lamp  being  connected  up 
wrong  so  that  the  positive  current  enters  the  copper  electrode 
instead  of  the  top  carbon. 

Q.  24.  What  arrangements  have  been  made  so  that  you 
cannot  connect  your  wires  wrong? 

A.  24.  The  positive  binding  post  both  at  the  dynamo  and 
lamp  have  been  provided  with  a  much  larger  hole  to  receive 
the  wire  than  has  been  made  in  the  negative  binding  post. 
The  ends  of  the  positive  wire  should  always  be  bent  or  doubled 
back  so  they  will  just  enter  the  receptacle  in  the  positive  bind- 
ing posts,  but  cannot  be  connected  to  the  negative  binding  post. 

Q.  25.  Should  the  copper  electrode  and  holder  become 
fused  until  no  longer  serviceable  out  on  the  road,  what  would 
you  do? 

A.  25.  Remove  the  damaged  holder  from  the  lamp.  Fasten 
a  bolt  or  carbon  in  the  bracket  of  the  lamp  with  the  end  in  the 
center  of  reflector  and  not  touching  the  base  of  reflector  or 
lamp. 

Q.  26.  If  you  were  running  along  with  the 'light  burning 
steady  and  nice,  then  suddenly  the  light  began  to  flash  badly 
and  kept  it  up,  where  would  you  look  for  the  trouble? 

A.  26.     A  loose  wire  in  the  binding  post  or  insulation  worn 


574  EXAMINATIONS. 

off  both  wires  allowing  them  to  be  jarred  together.    Examine 
lamp  and  see  that  all  set  screws  are  tight. 

Q.  27.  If  you  were  running  along  with  light  burning  satis- 
factorily and  suddenly  your  light  went  out,  where  would  you 
be  likely  to  find  the  trouble? 

A.  27.  Generally  a  carbon  burned  out  or  a  broken  wire 
between  dynamo  and  lamp. 

Q.  28.  If  the  light  goes  out  while  between  stations,  what 
course  would  an  engineer  pursue? 

A.  28.  Steam  shut  off  until  investigation  of  cause  can  be 
made. 

Q.  29.     Why  is  it  essential  to  shut  off  steam  and  stop  the 
equipment? 

A.  29.  To  avoid  the  possibility  of  the  armature  or  fields 
being  burned  out. 

Q.  30.     How  does  the  equipment  act  when  short  circuited? 

A.  30.  There  will  be  a  small  dull  red  light  in  lamp,  or  no 
light  at  all,  engine  will  labor  heavily  and  run  slowly  with  con- 
siderable volume  of  steam  blowing  at  the  exhaust. 

Q.  31.     How  would  you  test  for  a  broken  circuit? 

A.  31.  Place  a  carbon  across  the  binding  posts  or  dynamo. 
No  flash  will  be  seen  if  the  trouble  is  in  the  dynamo,  but  if 
dynamo  is  O.  K.  a  flash  would  be  seen;  this  would  indicate 
that  the  trouble  is  on  towards  the  lamp.  Then  go  to  the  lamp, 
placing  carbon  across  binding  posts.  If  wire  is  broken  between 
dynamo  and  lamp  there  will  be  no  flash.  If  wires  are  O.  K. 
there  will  be  a  flash  and  the  trouble  will  be  found  in  the  lamp. 
Probably  a  carbon  will  be  found  to  be  burned  out. 

Q.  32.  How  would  you  proceed  to  locate  the  point  of  trouble 
with  a  short  circuit? 

A.  32.  First,  remove  one  of  the  lead  wires  from  the  binding 
post  at  dynamo;  if  the  trouble  was  in  the  dynamo  no  difference 
would  be  noticed  in  action  of  speed.  Second,  disconnect  one 
of  the  cab  wires;  speed  would  increase  and  lamp  would  burn 
if  the  trouble  is  in  cab  circuit.  Third,  if  trouble  is  not  in  cab 
circuit,  go  to  lamp,  disconnect  one  of  the  main  wires  from 
binding  post.  There  will  be  no  change  in  speed  of  dynamo  if 
short  circuit  is  in  the  wires  between  dynamo  and  lamp.  The 
speed  of  engine  will  increase  and  the  trouble  will  be  found  in 
the  lamp  if  the  wires  are  all  right. 


EXAMINATIONS.  575 

AIR  BRAKE  QUESTIONS 
PUMP  GOVERNOR* 

Q.  1.     What  is  the  duty  of  the  pump  governor? 

A.  1.  To  properly  regulate  the  air  pressure  in  the  main 
reservoir. 

Q.  2.     Explain  how  the  governor  operates. 

A.  2.  The  governor  is  an  automatic  arrangement  for  admit- 
ting and  closing  off  steam  to  the  air  pump,  and  is  actuated 
by  air  pressure.  The  steam  valve,  which  shuts  off  and  opens 
up  the  steam  passage  way  to  the  pump,  is  controlled  by  an 
air  piston  and  spring.  When  air  pressure  is  admitted  above  the 
piston,  it  forces  the  piston  down,  closing  off  the  steam  to  the 
pump.  When  the  air  pressure  is  exhausted  from  above  the 
piston,  the  spring  forces  the  piston  up  and  allows  steam  pres- 
sure to  pass  to  the  pump.  The  admission  and  exhaust  of  the 
air  to  this  piston  is  controlled  by  a  diaphragm  and  spring.  The 
air  from  the  main  reservoir  enters  the  body  of  the  governor 
underneath  the  diaphragm,  which  is  held  by  a  spring  of  given 
tension,  depending  on  the  pressure  desired  in  the  main  reser- 
voir. While  the  main  reservoir  pressure  is  less  than  the 
pressure  the  governor  is  set  for,  this  diaphragm  is  held  down 
by  the  spring,  and  the  air  can  pass  no  farther  than  a  small 
pin  valve  attached  to  it,  but  when  the  main  reservoir  pressure 
overcomes  the  tension  of  the  spring,  it  raises  the  diaphragm, 
unseats  the  pin  valve  and  allows  the  air  to  flow  to  the  top  of 
the  air  piston,  shutting  off  the  pump.  During  the  time  the 
air  is  acting  on  this  piston  some  of  it  escapes  through  a  leakage 
port  or  vent  hole,  which  is  always  open.  When  the  main  reser- 
voir pressure  drops  below  that  to  which  the  spring  is  adjusted, 
the  spring  forces  the  diaphragm  down,  seating  the  pin  valve 
and  allowing  the  air  on  top  of  the  piston  to  escape  to  the 
atmosphere  through  the  small  vent  port. 

Q.  3.  By  what  air  pressure  is  the  governor  operated  when 
using  the  D-8  brake  valve?  When  using  the  G-6  valve?  When 
using  the  New  York  brake  valve? 

A.  3.  With  the  D-8  valve,  by  train  line  pressure.  With  the 
F-6  or  G-6  valve  by  the  main  reservoir  pressure.  New  York, 
by  the  train  line. 

Q.  4.  By  what  pressure  is  the  duplex  governor  operated 
in  high  speed  service?    By  what  pressure  in  ordinary  service? 

A.  4.  The  governor  tops  are  adjusted  for  90  and  110  pounds 
and  the  two  feed  valves  are  set  for  70  and  90  pounds.    To  oper- 


*See  volume,  Air  Brake-Construction  and  Working. 


576  EXAMINATIONS. 

ate  the  low  or  ordinary  pressure  feature,  the  handle  of  the 
reversing  cock  is  turned  to  the  left,  this  cuts  out  the  110  pound 
governor  and  90  pound  feed  valve  and  renders  operative  the 
90  pound  governor  and  70  pound  feed  valve.  By  reversing  the 
position  of  the  reversing  cock  handle  the  low  pressure  parts 
are  cut  out  and  the  high  pressure  parts  cut  in;  but  the  small 
stop  cock  in  the  governor  pipe  must  also  be  closed. 

Q.  5.  What  is  the  object  of  the  relief  port  in  the  governor? 
Why  should  it  be  kept  open? 

A.  5.  If  this  port  is  not  kept  open,  the  air  pressure  which 
holds  the  piston  down  cannot  escape  when  the  diaphragm  valve 
closes,  and,  consequently,  the  governor  will  not  operate  the 
pump    properly. 

Q.  6.  If  the  pin  valve  leaks,  what  effect  will  it  have  on 
the  pump? 

A.  6.  It  will  allow  a  certain  amount  of  air  pressure  to  flow 
in  on  top  of  the  air  piston.  If  the  leak  is  greater  than  the 
escape  from  the  little  leakage  port,  the  under  pressure  will 
accumulate,  and  cause  the  governor  to  slow  down  or  completely 
stop  the  pump. 

Q.  7.     How  can  you  detect  leaks  in  the  governor? 

A.  7.  By  disconnecting  the  upper  from  the  lower  section 
of  the  governor,  then  attaching  the  air  pressure  connection, 
turn  the  air  pressure  under  the  diaphragm.  It  if  raises  with 
the  proper  pressure  and  opens  the  port  the  escape  of  air  will 
be  readily  noticed.  Should  it  not  be  raised  or  the  port  be  closed 
by  dirt,  it  would  be  in  that  section;  this  will  also  show  if  the 
diaphragm  leaks.     I  would  then  inspect  the  lower  section. 

Q.  8.  Where  would  you  look  for  the  cause  if  the  governor 
allowed  the  pump  to  raise  the  pressure  too  high? 

A.  8.  The  main  reservoir  pressure  may  not  reach  the  gov- 
ernor, due  to  the  stoppage  in  the  pipe,  or  in  the  union  at  the 
governor.  This  may  also  be  due  to  the  space  on  top  of  the  dia- 
phragm being  filled  with  dirt.  If  the  air  is  getting  to  the 
diaphragm  valve,  and  is  so  indicated  by  the  blow  at  the  leakage 
port,  the  trouble  must  then  be  due  to  the  drip  pipe  being 
stopped  up  or  frozen,  thereby  preventing  the  air  and  steam, 
which  leak  in  under  the  air  piston,  from  escaping. 

Q.  9.  Where,  if  the  pump  stopped  when  the  pressure  was 
too  low? 

A,  9.  If  the  pump  was  not  getting  steam  it  would  probably 
be  due  to  the  pin  valve  gummed  up  or  dirt  under  it;  the  detec- 
tor hole  or  leakage  port  in  the  side  of  the  governor  would  then 
blow.  Once  in  a  great  while  the  piston  and  steam  valve  have 
been  known  to  stick  closed,  but  very  rarely. 

Q.  10.  What  effect  does  it  have  on  the  pump  if  the  drip  pipe 
is  stopped  or  frozen  up? 


EXAMINATIOyS.  577 

A.  10.  The  governor  cannot  then  act  to  shut  off  the  pump 
and  too  high  a  pressure  will  be  pumped  into  the  main  drum. 

AIR  PUMP* 

Q.  1.  Explain  how  an  air  pump  should  be  started  and  run 
on  the  road. 

A.  1.  It  should  be  started  slowly  to  permit  the  condensa- 
tion to  be  drained  off.  The  lubricator  should  be  started  care- 
fully and  the  pump  worked  slowly  until  about  forty  pounds 
has  been  accumulated  in  the  main  reservoir  to  cushion  the 
Bteam  and  air  piston  of  the  pump.  Then  the  throttle  should 
be  opened  wider,  giving  a  speed  of  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty  or  one  hundred  and  forty  single  strokes  per  minute. 
The  amount  of  work  being  done  really  governs  the  speed  of 
the  pump, 

Q.  2.     How  should   the  steam  end  be  oiled? 

A.  2.  By  the  sight-feed  lubricator,  with  a  good  quality 
of  valve  oil,  and  at  the  rate  of  about  one  drop  per  minute.  This 
amount  will  vary  with  the  condition  of  pump  and  the  work 
being  done. 

Q.  3.  How  should  the  air  end  of  the  pump  be  oiled,  and 
what  kind  of  oil  used? 

A.  3.  High-grade  valve  oil,  containing  good  lubricating 
qualities  and  no  sediment,  should  be  used.  A  good  swab  on 
the  piston  rod  will  help  out  a  great  deal.  Oil  should  be  used 
in  the  air  cylinder  of  the  pump  sparingly,  but  continuously, 
and  it  should  be  introduced  on  the  down  stroke,  when  the 
pump  is  running  slowly,  through  the  little  cup  provided  for 
that  purpose,  and  not  through  the  air  suction  valves.  An 
automatic  oil  cup  is  preferable  to  hand  oiling. 

Q.  4.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  steam  end  of  the  pump 
— on  an  up-stroke;   on  a  down-stroke. 

A.  4.  When  first  admitting  steam  to  the  9%-inch  pump,  if 
the  main  piston  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  (as  it  usually 
is,  due  to  gravity),  the  main  valve  moves  to  the  right  hand 
position  pulling  with  it  the  side  valve  and  thus  admitting 
steam  to  bottom  of  the  cylinder  under  the  piston,  forcing  it 
up;  when  the  main  piston  is  nearly  at  the  top  of  its  fetroke, 
the  reversing  plate  catches  the  shoulder  on  the  reversing-valve 
rod,  moving  the  reversing  rod  and  valve  to  their  upper  posi- 
tions, where  it  admits  behind  the  large  head  of  the  main 
valve,  forcing  this  main  valve  over  to  the  left,  carrying  with 
it  the  slide  valve  which  admits  steam  to  the  top  end  of  the 


*See  volume.  Air  Brake  Construction  and  Working.    Also  West- 
house  Air  Brake  Portfolio. 


578  EXAMINATIONS. 

cylinder,  and,  at  the  same  time,  exhausts  it  from  the  bottom 
end,  thereby  reversing  the  stroke  of  the  pump. 

Q.  5.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  air  end  of  the  pump 
on  an  up-stroke;    on  a  down-stroke. 

A.  5.  The  air  piston  is  directly  connected  with  the  steam 
piston,  and  any  movement  of  the  steam  piston  will  conse- 
quently be  transmitted  to  the  air  piston.  When  the  steam 
piston  moves  up  the  air  piston  will,  of  course,  go  with  it,  thus 
leaving  an  empty  space  or  a  vacuum  in  the  lower  end  of  the 
air  cylinder,  underneath  the  air  piston.  Atmospheric  air 
rushes  through  the  air  inlet,  raising  the  lower  receiving  valve, 
and  filling  the  bottom  end  of  the  cylinder  with  atmospheric 
pressure.  At  the  same  time  the  air  above  the  air  piston  will 
be  compressed.  The  pressure  thus  formed  holds  the  upper 
receiving  valve  to  its  seat  and  when  a  little  greater  than  the 
air  in  the  main  reservoir,  the  upper  discharge  valve  will  lift 
and  allow  the  compressed  air  to  flow  into  the  main  reservoir. 
When  the  piston  reaches  the  top  of  the  stroke  its  motion  is 
reversed,  and  on  the  down  stroke  the  vacuum  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  air  cylinder  is  supplied  by  atmospheric  pressure  pass- 
ing through  the  upper  receiving  valve.  The  main  reservoir 
pressure  is  held  by  the  upper  discharge  valve,  and  the  air 
being  compressed  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  holds  the  bot- 
tom receiving  valve  to  its  seat,  and  when  compressed  sufB- 
ciently,  forces  the  lower  discharge  valve  open  and  passes  to 
the  main  reservoir, 

Q.  6.     Give  some  of  the  causes  of  a  pump  running  hot. 

A.  6.  First,  air  cylinder  packing  rings  leaking.  Second, 
discharge  valves  stuck  closed  or  the  discharge  passages  so 
obstructed  that  the  pump  will  be  pumping  against  high  pres- 
sure continually.  Third,  poor  lubrication.  Fourth,  high  speed. 
Fifth,  discharge  or  receiving  air  valves  leaking.  Sixth,  air 
piston  rod  packing  leaking. 

Q.  7.  If  a  pump  runs  very  hot  on  the  road,  how  will  you 
proceed  to  cool  it? 

A.  7.  First,  reduce  the  speed  of  the  pump,  and  look  for 
leaks  in  the  train  line.  Second,  make  sure  that  the  packing 
around  the  piston  rod  is  not  too  tight  and  in  bad  condition. 
Third,  see  that  the  main  reservoir  is  properly  drained.  If  the 
pump  still  runs  hot  it  should  be  reported  at  the  end  of  the  trip. 

Q.  8.  If  the  pump  stops,  how  can  you  tell  whether  the 
trouble  is  in  the  pump  or  in  the  governor? 

A.  8.  It  may  be  tested  by  opening  the  drain  cock  in  the 
steam  passage  at  the  pump,  and  noting  whether  there  is  a 
free  flow  of  steam;  if  so,  there  is  a  free  passage  through  the 
governor  and  the  trouble  is  not  there. 

Q.  9.     State   the   common   causes   for   the   pump   stopping. 


EXAMINATIONS.  579 

A.  9.  There  are  several  reasons.  First,  it  may  be  stopped 
by  the  governor  being  out  of  order.  Second,  the  valves  may 
be  dry  and  need  lubrication.  Third,  nuts  may  be  loose  or 
broken  on  the  piston  rod  or  one  of  the  pistons  pulled  off. 
Fourth,  the  reversing  valve  rod  may  be  broken  or  bent,  or  the 
reversing  plate  may  be  loose,  or  the  shoulder  on  the  reversing 
valve  rod  or  on  the  reversing  plate  may  be  so  badly  worn 
as  not  to  catch  and  perform  their  proper  functions.  Fifth, 
nuts  holding  the  main  valve  piston  may  be  loose  or  broken 
off.  Sixth,  excessive  blow  past  the  packing  rings  of  the 
main  valve. 

Q.  10.  Under  what  circumstances  will  a  pump  compress 
air  in  but  one  direction? 

A.  10.  With  either  discharge  valve  broken  and  held  off 
its  seat. 

Q.  11.  How  will  defective  air  valves  affect  the  operation 
of  the  pump? 

A.  11.  Leaky  air  valves,  like  leaky  air  cylinder  packing, 
cause  a  pump  to  heat  badly  and  lose  greatly  in  the  amount  of 
air  compressed.  A  broken  air  valve  causes  the  loss  of  all 
service  of  compression  at  that  end  of  the  pump,  that  is,  makes 
it  single  instead  of  double  acting.    See  also  Answer  6. 

Q.  12.     How  do  you  locate  these  defects? 

A.  12.  By  the  way  the  pump  acts.  The  main  piston  moves 
quickly  toward  a  broken  receiving  valve  and  away  from  a 
broken  discharge  valve.  The  various  defects  all  have  their 
symptoms,  which  are  noticed  if  the  principle  of  the  pump  and 
its  details  are  clearly  understood. 

Q.  13.  Should  an  engineman  observe  the  working  of  a 
pump  on  the  road  so  as  to  properly  report  defects  or  repairs 
needed,  and  do  you  consider  yourself  competent  to  locate 
defects? 

A.  13.    Yes. 

Q.  14.  If  the  pump  stops  on  the  road,  what  will  you  do  to 
start  it? 

A.  14.  Close  the  steam  valve  a  moment  and  then  open  it 
quickly.  If  it  then  failed  to  start,  it  would  indicate  that  the 
main  valve  was  broken.  Also  examine  it  in  both  air  and  steam 
end  for  defects.  Be  sure,  first,  that  the  governor  is  not  defec- 
tive or  has  not  shut  off  the  supply  of  steam  to  the  pump. 


680  EXAMINATIONS. 


WESTINGHOUSE  CROSS-COMPOUND  PUMPS* 

ENGINEERS'     BRAKE     AND     EQUALIZING     DISCHARGE 
VALVE  * 

Q.  1.  Name  the  different  positions  of  the  brake  valve  and 
trace  the  flow  of  air  through  it  in  each  position. 

A.  1.  Full  release,  running  position,  lap,  service  applica- 
tion and  emergency  application.  In  full  release  there  is  a 
large  direct  communication  between  the  main  reservoir  and 
the  train  pipe.  In  running  position  the  air  passes  from  the 
main  reservoir  indirectly  to  the  train  pipe,  that  is,  through 
the  ports  and  passages  of  the  excess-pressure  valve  or  through 
the  feed-valve,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  lap  position  all  ports 
are  closed.  In  service  application  first  the  air  from  the  equaliz- 
ing discharge  reservoir  and  cavity  "D"  escapes  to  the  atmos- 
phere, then,  when  the  equalizing  discharge  piston  raises,  the 
air  from  the  train  pipe  escapes  to  the  atmosphere  through  the 
train  line  exhaust  elbow.  In  emergency  position  a  large 
direct  opening  is  made  between  the  train  pipe  and  the  at- 
mosphere. 

Q.  2.  Where  does  the  main  reservoir  pressure  begin  and 
end?    Where  does  the  train  pipe  pressure  begin  and  end? 

A.  2.  The  main  reservoir  pressure  begins  at  the  pump  dis- 
charge pipe  and  ends  at  the  connection  to  the  brake  valve. 
The  train  pipe  pressure  begins  at  the  brake  valve  and  extends 
to  the  rear  cock  on  the  train,  with  branches  to  the  triple  valve 
under  each  car,  the  tender,  and  the  engine. 

Q.  3,     Explain  the  effect  of  a  cut  rotary  valve  or  seat. 

A.  3.  A  leaky  rotary  valve  or  seat  usually  causes  a  loss 
of  excess  pressure  in  running  position  and  releases  the  brakes 
in  lap  position. 

Q.  4.  With  the  handle  of  the  brake  valve  in  either  running 
or  holding  position,  what  defect  will  cause  the  black  hand  to 
equalize  with  the  red  hand? 

A.  4.  A  leaky  rotary  valve,  a  lower  body  gasket,  feed  valve, 
or  feed  valve  gasket. 

Q.  5.  How  do  you  regulate  the  excess  pressure  with  each 
form  of  brake  valve?    How  do  you  clean  the  valves? 

A.  5.  With  the  1889  (D-8)  brake  valve,  by  the  excess  pres- 
sure spring;  with  the  later  forms  of  brake  valves,  by  the 
spring  in  the  feed-valve  attachment.     Clean  the  valves  and 


*See  volume,  Air  Brake-Construction  and  Working. 


EXAMINATIONS.  581 

their  seats  by  waste  or  friction  from  a  soft  piece  of  wood — 
never  oil  them    when  replacing. 

Q.  6.    How  do  you  apply  and  release  the  automatic  brake? 

A.  6.  The  automatic  brake  is  applied  by  reducing  the  train 
pipe  pressure  below  that  in  the  auxiliary,  it  is  released  by 
increasing  the  train  pipe  pressure  above  that  in  the  auxiliary. 
The  brake  valve  is  the  valve  to  properly  perform  these  func- 
tions, when  everything  is  in  working  order. 

Q.  7.  How  can  you  tell  which  defect  caused  the  hands  to 
equalize? 

A.  7.  Reduce  the  brake  pipe  pressure  below  the  adjustment 
of  the  feed  valve,  close  the  cut-out  cock  under  the  brake  valve. 
If  there  is  a  leak  at  the  service  exhaust  port,  the  rotary  valve 
will  be  leaking.  If  there  be  no  discharge,  and  the  black  hand 
raise,  the  body  gasket  is  at  fault.  If  the  black  hand  remains 
stationary,  the  trouble  will  be  found  in  the  feed  valve  or  its 
case  gasket. 

Q.  8.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  equalizing  reservoir,  and 
what  effect  would  a  leak  from  this  reservoir  have? 

A.  8.  The  purpose  of  the  equalizing  reservoir  is  to  supply 
a  larger  volume  of  air  above  the  equalizing  piston  to  enable 
the  engineer  to  make  a  graduated  reduction  of  the  pressure 
above  the  pistor  Leakage  from  this  reservoir  would  be  liable 
to  cause  the  brakes  to  set  when  the  brake  valve  is  in  lap  posi- 
tion. 

Q.  9.  If  the  pipe  connecting  the  brake  valve  to  the  equaliz- 
ing reservoir  should  break,  what  should  be  done? 

A.  9.  The  pipe  at  the  brake  valve  should  be  plugged,  also 
the  service  exhaust  port.  Wishing  to  make  a  service  applica- 
tion, move  the  handle  carefully  towards  emergency  position 
until  the  desired  reduction  is  made  and  then  move  back  to  lap 
very  carefully. 

Q.  10.  What  can  be  learned  by  noticing  the  discharge  of  air 
from  the  train  pipe  exhaust? 

A.  10.  The  length  of  the  train  line,  that  is,  approximately 
the  number  of  cars  of  air.  By  watching  this  exhaust  it  can 
also  be  determined  if,  in  testing  brakes,  one  defective  triple 
sets  quick  action;  third,  in  releasing  brakes  it  can  be  told 
if  you  only  have  the  lone  engine. 

Q.  11.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  small  reservoir  connected  to 
the  brake  valve?  If  the  pipe  leading  to  this  reservoir  is  leak- 
ing badly  or  broken  off,  what  will  you  do? 

A.  11.  It  is  for  the  purpose  of  enlarging  chamber  "D"  with- 
out making  a  great  bulky  brake  valve  in  the  cab.  Plug  up  this 
pipe  or  put  in  a  blind  gasket,  also  plug  the  train  line  exhaust 
nipple  and  use  emergency  position  carefully,  as  with  the  old 
three-way  cock. 


B82  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  12.  Where  is  the  first  air  taken  from  in  making  a  serv- 
ice stop?    Where  does  it  blow  out?    Where  next? 

A.  12.  From  chamber  "D"'  and  the  equalizing  reservoir.  It 
blows  out  of  the  preliminary  exhaust.  Next,  the  train  pipe 
pressure  escapes  from  the  train  line  exhaust  nipple. 

Q.  13.  Does  air  ever  blow  out  of  the  train  pipe  exhaust 
when  releasing  the  brake?  Why? 

A.  13.  Yes,  with  a  lone  engine  or  very  short  train,  in  which 
case  the  train  line  charges  more  rapidly  than  chamber  "D"  and 
the  equalizing  reservoir,  thus  causing  piston  17  to  raise. 

Q.  14.  What  pressures  do  the  red  hand  and  black  hand  of 
the  gauge  indicate? 

A.  14.  Red  hand — main  reservoir;  black  hand — chamber 
"D"  pressure. 

Q.  15.  Does  the  blank  hand  of  the  gauge  also  show  the 
train  pipe  pressure  at  all  times? 

A.  15.  No,  only  when  chamber  "D"  and  the  train  line  are 
connected,  as  in  full  release  and  running  position.  On  lap  or  in 
service  positions  at  the  instant  the  train  line  exhaust  starts  or 
stops,  they  are  also  practically  equal. 

Q.  16.  What  will  be  the  result  of  leaving  the  handle  of  the 
brake  valve  in  full  release  position  too  long  and  then  moving 
to  running  position? 

A.  16.  Brakes  are  likely  to  drag  due  to  temporarily  shutting 
off  all  supply  of  air  to  overcome  the  leaks. 

Q.  17.  Following  a  straight  air  application,  if  the  brake 
fails  to  release  with  the  straight  air  valve  in  release  position, 
where  would  you  look  for  the  trouble  and  what  may  be  done  to 
release  the  brake? 

A.  17.  This  would  indicate  that  the  double-throw  clutch 
valve  was  leaking  and  that  the  feed  valve  wanted  cleaning. 
To  release  the  brake  move  the  automatic  brake  valve  to  release 
and  quickly  return  to  running  position. 

Q.  18.  How  is  the  train  pipe  pressure  regulated  with  each 
type  of  brake  valve? 

A.  18.  By  the  governor  with  the  1889  (D-8)  brake  valve; 
by  the  feed  valve  attachment  with  all  later  types  of  brake 
valves. 

Q.  19.  In  making  a  service  application  what  should  the 
first  reduction  be? 

A.  19.  From  5  to  8  pounds,  depending  upon  the  length  of 
the  train. 

Q.  20.  What  reduction  from  70  pounds  train  pipe  pressure 
will  fully  apply  the  brake?    Why? 

A.  20.  About  20  pounds;  because  that  amount  from  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs  will  equalize  with  the  pressure  in  the 
brake  cylinders  at  about  50  pounds. 


EXAMIXATIO^^S.  583 

■  Q.  21.-  How  do  you  handle  the  brake  valve  to  apply  the 
brake  in  the  emergency? 

A.  21.  It  should  be  thrown  to  full  emergency  position  and 
left  there. 

Q.  22.  How  do  you  handle  the  brake  valve  in  the  case  of  a 
bursted  hose? 

A.  22.  Place  the  handle  on  lap.  If  the  trainmen  could  not 
find  the  burst  hose,  I  would  frequently  throw  a  wave  of  air  into 
the  train  pipe  (in  running  position  or  partial  release)  so  as  to 
aid  them. 

Q.  23.     In  case  the  train  breaks  in  two? 

A.  23.  Place  the  brake  valve  on  lap  until  the  rear  cock  of 
the  first  section  is  closed;  then  release  and  as  soon  as  these 
brakes  are  off,  place  the  handle  again  on  lap  to  get  pressure  to 
release  the  rear  portion  of  train  when  coupled  up.  Do  not 
recharge  to  full  pressure  until  the  whole  train  is  coupled  up. 

Q.  24.  When  the  train  is  backing  up  and  a  tail  hose  is  used 
on  rear  end  to  apply  brakes? 

A.  24.  Always  carry  the  valve  in  running  position  when 
the  tail  hose  is  being  used.  Never  throw  it  to  full  release  unless 
the  train  stops  and  some  brakes  fail  to  release. 

Q.  25.  Do  leaks  in  the  brake  valve  affect  the  operation  of 
the  brakes? 

A.  25.  Yes.  If  air  leaks  to  the  atmosphere  it  will  effect  the 
reduction  desired.  If  it  leaks  from  the  main  reservoir  to  other 
ports  it  may  release  the  brakes  or  make  the  service  application 
position  of  no  effect. 

Q.  26.  Name  the  defects  in  the  brake  valve  and  explain 
how  you  would  locate  them. 

A.  26.  Leaky  rotary  valve  (or  body  gasket)  place  the  valve 
in  service  position,  bleed  the  engine  and  tender  auxiliaries  and 
place  the  rear  tank  hose  in  a  bucket  of  water.  Air  bubbles  in 
the  water  will  indicate  this  leak.  If  the  rotary  and  body  gasket 
are  tight,  loss  of  excess  means  dirty  or  cut  feed-valve  or 
broken  feed-valve  gasket.  Leaky  packing  ring  in  piston  17  (the 
equalizing  discharge  piston)  makes  the  gauge  reduce  slower 
and  the  black  hand  recoil  after  a  considerable  reduction.  A 
leak  in  chamber  "D"  or  its  connections  (the  gauge  and  the 
equalizing  reservoir)  causes  the  train  line  exhaust  to  blow  and 
the  brakes  to  set  on  lap  position.  These  are  the  main  defects 
and  "symptoms." 

Q.  27.     In  what  manner  can  you  remedy  these  defects? 

A.  27.  Carefully  tighten  the  bolts  or  unions  where  gaskets 
are  leaking  and  clean  any  dirty  valves  without  scratching 
them;  after  that  is  done  it  is  better  to  handle  the  valve  care- 
fully until  the  terminal  is  reached  and  report  the  repairs 
needed  in  detail. 


584  EXAMINATIONS. 

NO.  6   E.   T..  EQUIPMENT* 
THE  TRIPLE  VALVE* 

Q.  1.    "What  is  the  duty  of  the  triple  valve? 

A.  1.  The  duty  of  the  triple  valve  is,  first,  to  charge  the 
auxiliary  reservoir;  second,  to  set  the  brakes  by  allowing 
auxiliary  pressure  to  flow  to  the  brake  cylinder,  and,  third,  to 
release  the  brakes  by  allowing  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  to 
escape  to  the  atmosphere. 

Q.  2.    "Why  is  the  word  triple  used  to  designate  this  valve? 

A.  2.     Because  it  performs  the  three  functions  mentioned. 

Q.  2a.     By  what  is  it  connected  to  the  brake  valve? 

A.  2a.     By  the  branch  pipe  and  the  train  line  with  hose. 

Q.  3.  Explain  the  duty  of  the  triple  piston,  the  slide  valve 
and  the  graduating  valve. 

A.  3.  The  duty  of  the  triple  valve  piston,  is,  by  variation  of 
pressures  on  its  two  sides,  to  move  the  slide  valve  on  its  seat  to 
the  application,  graduating,  and  release  position,  and  to  open 
and  close  the  feed  groove  in  the  piston  bushing.  The  function 
of  the  slide  valve  is,  by  its  movement  due  to  the  triple  valve 
piston,  to  make  connection  between  the  auxiliary  reservoir  and 
brake  cylinder,  applying  the  brake,  and  to  make  connections 
between  the  brake  cylinder  and  the  atmosphere,  releasing  the 
brake.  The  function  of  the  graduating  valve  is,  from  it  move- 
ment given  by  the  triple  piston,  to  admit  pressure  gradually 
from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  to  the  brake  cylinder  in  response 
to  reductions  made  in  the  train  pipe  pressure. 

Q.  4.     How  many  kinds  of  triple  valves  are  in  use? 

A.  4.  Two,  the  plain  type  and  the  quick  action  type,  or  ac- 
cording to  the  fact. 

Q.  5.     Describe  how  each  kind  operates. 

A.  5.  With  the  quick  action  type,  a  sudden  reduction  of 
pressure  in  the  train  pipe  will  cause  the  triple  piston  and  its 
parts  to  be  moved  to  quick  action  application  position,  which 
first  throws  into  operation  the  emergency  feature  of  the  triple, 
admitting  train  line  pressure  to  the  brake  cylinder,  after  which 
auxiliary  reservoir  pressure  is  perniitted  to  pass  to  the  brake 
cylinder,  and  consequently  a  higher  pressure  is  obtained  than  in 
a  full  service  application  of  the  brake.  With  the  plain  type  any 
sudden  reduction  merely  moves  the  parts  to  their  extreme 
position  but  allows  no  other  than  auxiliary  reservoir  pressure 
to  flow  to  the  brake  cylinder. 


•See  volume.  Air  Brake-Construction  and  Working.     .\lso  West- 
inghouse  Air  Brake  Portfolio. 


1 


EXAMINATIONS.  585 

Q.  6.  Explain  where  the  air  comes  from  that  enters  the 
brake  cylinder  in  a  service  application.  In  an  emergency  ap- 
plication.   With  each  kind  of  triple  valve. 

A.  6.  In  service  application  with  either  type  of  triple  valve 
the  air  that  enters  the  brake  cylinder  comes  from  the  auxiliary 
reservoir;  with  the  quick  action  triple  only  does  part  of  the 
train  pipe  air  first  enter  the  brake  cylinder  quickly,  later 
followed  by  the  auxiliary  pressure. 

Q.  7.  How  do  you  cut  out  a  triple  valve  so  its  brake  will  not 
operate? 

A.  7.  The  old  style  plain  triple,  by  turning  the  handle  down 
obliquely  to  about  45°.  With  the  later  style  and  all  quick  action 
triples,  by  closing  the  stop  cock  in  the  branch  pipe.  Then 
bleed  the  auxiliary  reservoir. 

Q.  8.  If  a  triple  valve  does  not  apply  the  brake  at  the 
proper  time,  where  will  you  look  for  the  trouble? 

A.  8.  If  the  auxiliary  is  charged,  the  triple  valve  is  prob- 
ably frozen  or  stuck  or  the  packing  ring  worn  badly,  or  the 
brake  cylinder  itself  leaking  badly.  If  the  auxiliary  has  not 
charged,  the  feed  groove  may  be  closed  or  the  reservoir  itself 
be  leaking  badly. 

Q.  9.  If  the  brake  will  not  release,  where  will  you  look  for 
the  trouble? 

A.  9.  Retainer  turned  up  or  its  pipe  stopped  up;  triple 
piston  packing  ring  worn;  triple  strainer  stopped  up  or  triple 
frozen. 

Q.  10.  Name  the  common  defects  of  the  triple  valve  and 
explain  how  you  locate  them. 

A.  10.  Triple  valve  frozen  or  stuck,  packing  ring  leaking, 
etc.,  located  as  above.  Emergency  gasket  leaking — cut  the  car 
out  underneath  and  the  brake  will  set  quick  action.  Slide 
valve  dirty  or  leaking — blows  through  the  exhaust  or  retainer 
but  will  not  cause  emergency  as  last  stated.  Brake  fails  to 
release  on  long  train,  usually  the  piston  packing  ring  or  cylin- 
der bushing  worn  badly. 

NEW  YORK  AIR  BRAKE.     THE  DUPLEX  AIR  PUMP. 

Q.  1.  Describe  the  New  York  Duplex  Air  Pump  and  its 
operation  in  the  steam  end. 

A.  1.  It  has  four  cylinders — two  steam  and  two  air;  one 
air  cylinder  is  double  the  area  of  any  one  of  the  other  three, 
which  are  all  the  same  size.  The  steam  end  is  duplex,  and  the 
piston  in  each  steam  cylinder  operates  the  slide  valve  which 
controls  the  flow  of  steam  from  the  boiler  into  the  opposite 
steam  cylinder  and  out  to  the  atmosphere.  This  is  done  by 
locating  the  slide  valve  for  the  right  cylinder  under  the  left 


586  EXAMINATIONS. 

fylinder,  and  for  the  left  cylinder  under  the  right  one,  and 
cross  the  steam  ports  from  the  left  valve  to  the  right  cylinder 
and  from  the  right  valve  to  the  left  cylinder.  The  valves  are 
D  slide  valves  which  admit  steam  to  the  cylinder  by  the  outside 
edge  of  the  valve  and  exhaust  through  a  cavity  in  the  center. 
The  seat  has  three  ports,  two  steam  with  the  exhaust  port 
between  them.  A  reversing  valve  rod  is  attached  to  the  steam 
valve  and  extends  into  the  steam  cylinder;  the  main  piston  rod 
is  drilled  to  clear  this  valve  rod  within  it  and  a  plate  is  bolted 
on  to  the  steam  piston  in  such  a  manner  as  to  strike  a  shoulder 
on  the  valve  rod  just  before  the  stroke  of  the  piston  in  either 
direction  is  completed,  changing  the  steam  valve  to  its  opposite 
position  in  the  steam  chest.  Both  steam  valves  being  down, 
when  steam  is  turned  on  the  right  piston  makes  a  stroke  up 
and  at  the  completion  of  the  stroke  changes  its  steaip  valve, 
causing  the  left  piston  to  make  a  stroke  up,  changing  its  steam 
valve  at  the  completion  of  the  stroke,  and  causing  the  right 
piston  to  move  down,  etc.  The  steam  cylinders  are  the  two 
bottom  cylinders. 

Q.  2.     Describe  the  operation  of  the  air  end. 

A.  2.  The  large  piston  compresses  air  into  the  smaller 
cylinder  and  then  the  latter  compresses  it  into  the  main  reser- 
voir. 

Q.  3.  Is  this  a  compound  pump  in  both  steam  and  air  ends, 
or  in  the  air  end  only? 

A.  3.     Only  in  the  air  end. 

Q.  4.  What  defects  in  the  steam  end  will  stop  the  pump? 
How  do  you  locate  them? 

A.  4.  Chiefly  the  reversing  apparatus — the  reversing  platee 
and  rods.  Would  investigate  until  the  trouble  was  found,  bear- 
ing in  mind  the  main  valve  for  one  cylinder  regulates  the  steam 
in  the  other. 

Q.  5.  What  defects  in  the  air  end  will  stop  the  pump? 
How  do  you  locate  them? 

A.  5.  Generally  broken  piston  rods  or  loose  nuts.  Broken 
or  defective  valves  cause  the  pump  to  go  "lame"  but  seldom 
stop  the  pump  unless  broken  parts  get  into  the  cylinder.  Re- 
move the'top  heads  to  get  at  the  air  cylinders  and  examine  the 
valves  through  their  caps. 

Q.  6.  Explain  how  you  will  locate  a  blow  of  steam  by  the 
piston  or  main  steam  valves. 

A.  6.  It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  leaky  packing 
rings,  leaky  slide  valves  and  worn  cylinder.  These  parts  should 
be  removed  and  examined  carefully  when  there  is  a  bad  blow. 

Q.  7.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  pump  not  exhausting  square 
or  working  lame? 


EXAMIXATIONS.  587 

A.  7.  Any  one  or  more  of  the  air  valves  stuck  or  broken 
or  if  they  have  much  different  "lift." 

Q.  8.  What  is  the  effect  of  leaky  piston  rod  packing  in  the 
high  pressure  air  cylinder? 

A.  8.  Any  defective  or  leakage  in  the  smaller  or  high-pres- 
sure cylinder  is  more  serious  than  in  the  low-pressure  cylinder 
because  the  pressure  in  the  former  is  so  much  higher  that  the 
consequent  loss  is  greater.  This  loss  of  compressed  air  to  the 
atmosphere  will  cause  the  pump  to  run  faster  in  order  to  main- 
tain the  same  pressure. 

Q.  9.  What  is  the  effect  of  leaky  piston  rod  packing  in  the 
steam  cylinders? 

A.  9.  A  waste  of  steam,  obstructing  the  vision  in  the  winter 
and  causes  the  piston  rods  to  cut  and  groove. 

Q.  10.     Explain  how  you  would  locate  a  defective  air  valve. 

A.  10.  The  general  rule  is  this:  the  piston  jumps  toward 
a  leaky  or  broken  receiving  valve  and  away  from  a  broken  or 
leaky  discharge  valve;  also  in  the  latter  case  the  pump  heats 
up  more,  as  the  compressed  air  is  "churned,"  that  is,  pumped 
,  over  and  over  again.  Air  blowing  out  of  the  low-pressure  re- 
ceiving valves  is  readily  detected. 

Q.  11.  How  should  the  air  cylinders  be  oiled?  The  steam 
cylinders? 

A.  11.  In  the  air  cylinders  use  good  valve  oil  very  sparingly. 
Always  keep  good,  well  oiled  swabs  on  the  piston  rods,  as  it 
has  been  proven  by  many  careful  engineers  that  w'ith  these 
practically  no  oil  need  be  put  into  the  air  cylinders.  Valve  oil 
in  the  steam  cylinders  and  lubrication  started  directly  after 
the  pump  has  started.  Remember  the  first  steam  admitted  to 
a  cold  pump  condenses  and  washes  the  surfaces  clean  of  oil; 
hence  oil  should  be  supplied  immediately  thereafter. 

Q.  12.     Which  air  cylinder  requires  the  most  oil? 

A.  12.  The  smaller  or  high-pressure  cylinder,  on  account 
of  the  higher  temperature. 

Q.  13.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  automatic  oil  cup  used 
on  the  air  cylinders. 

A.  13.  With  the  oil  cup  filled,  the  pump  working  and  the 
stroke  of  the  piston  upward,  air  is  forced  up  through  a  small 
passage  in  the  center  of  the  oil  cup  body  and  cap,  down  inside 
the  extended  cap  nut  sleeve,  through  the  oil  and  forms  a 
pressure  thereon.  When  the  piston  is  on  its  downward  stroke, 
and  there  is  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  air  cylinder,  the  air  pres- 
sure formed  on  top  of  the  oil  in  this  cup  forces  the  oil  up  inside 
the  sleeve  of  the  cap  nut  to  the  feed  port  and  a  small  quantity 
of  oil  is  then  taken  down  through  this  port  and  sprayed  into 
the  air  cylinders  on  each  down  stroke. 


588  EXAMINATIONS. 


L  T   EQUIPMENT* 

Q.  1.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  automatic  control  valve?" 
A.  1.  The  automatic  control  valve  is  designed  to  admit 
and  exhaust  air  to  and  from  all  the  brake  cylinders  on  the  loco- 
motive and  tender  during  an  automatic  application  of  the 
brakes,  and  to  automatically  maintain  the  desired  brake  cylin- 
der pressure  regardless  of  piston  travel  or  leakage  from  the 
brake  cylinders  or  their  connections. 

Q.  2.  Where  would  you  look  for  the  trouble  if  the  loco- 
motive brakes  fail  to  apply  or  leak  off  after  a  service  applica- 
tion is  made? 

A.  2.  A  leak  in  the  control  reservoir  pipe  or  its  connec- 
tions or  in  the  control  cylinder  cap  gasket  will  cause  this 
trouble,  or  the  spring  in  the  straight-air  brake  valve  may  be 
weak  or  broken,  permitting  the  handle  of  the  valve  to  remain 
in  the  automatic  release  position. 

Q.  3.  What  should  be  done  if  the  brake  cylinder  pipe 
breaks  between  the  double  chamber  reservoir  and  the  double 
check  valves? 

A.  3.  Close  the  cut-out  cock  in  the  main  reservoir  supply 
pipe.  If  this  occurs  while  train  is  in  motion  and  brake  applied, 
the  loss  of  main  reservoir  pressure  can  be  prevented  by  moving 
the  handle  of  the  straight-air  brake  valve  to  the  automatic 
release  position. 

Q.  4.  What  should  be  done  if  the  control  valve  release  pipe 
breaks? 

A.  4.  If  this  pipe  breaks,  the  holding  feature  would  be  lost. 
To  hold  the  locomotive  brakes  applied  when  releasing  train 
brakes,  use  the  straight-air  brake  valve. 

■Q.  5.  W^hat  should  be  done  if  the  brake  pipe  cross-over  pipe 
breaks?    If  the  main  reservoir  supply  pipe  breaks? 

A.  5.  Close  the  cut-out  cock  in  the  pipe  broken.  Either  pipe 
broken  means  the  loss  of  the  automatic  brake  on  the  locomotive? 

Q.  6.  What  should  be  done  if  the  control  reservoir  pipe 
breaks? 

A.  6.  The  locomotive  automatic  brakes  can  not  be  applied 
if  this  pipe  is  broken,  but  if  plugged,  it  can  be  applied  and 
released  with  automatic  brake  valve;  therefore,  the  pipe  should 
be  plugged. 


*See  Second  Supplement  to  the  volume,  Air  Brake-Construction 
and  Working.     Also  New  York  Air  Brake  Portfolio. 


EXAMINATIONS.  589/ 

B   3   EQUIPMENT 

Q.  1.     Name  the  different  positions  of  the  B  3  brake  valve.. 

A.  1.  Straight  air  application,  automatic  release;  running 
and  straight  air  release;  service,  subdivided  into  five  graduat- 
ing notches;  lap;  and  emergency  position. 

Q.  2.  "What  takes  place  when  the  brake  valve  handle  is. 
moved  to  any  one  of  the  different  positions? 

A.  2.  In  release  position,  air  flows  direct  to  the  brake  pipe 
and  the  supplementary  reservoir,  charging  both  to  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  pressure  controller,  the  accelerator  valve  reservoir 
is  open  to  the  atmosphere,  and  the  straight  air  port  is  open, 
admitting  air  to  the  brake  cylinders  of  the  locomotive,  applying 
the  straight  air  brake.  In  running  position,  air  may  also  pass 
to  the  brake  pipe  and  the  supplementary  reservoir;  in  this 
position  the  straight  air  port  is  open  to  the  atmosphere,  releas- 
ing the  straight  air  brake.  The  accelerator  valve  chamber  is. 
also  open  to  the  atmosphere.  In  lap  position  all  ports  are 
closed  except  the  port  which  leads  to  the  back  of  the  vent  valve. 
In  service  position  the  main  reservoir  air  is  cut  off  from  the 
brake  pipe  and  supplementary  reservoir;  the  brake  pipe  is 
open  to  the  atmosphere  through  the  service  ports,  and  the  port 
leading  to  the  accelerator  valve  chamber  is  open  to  the  brake 
pipe.  In  the  fifth  service  notch  the  straight  air  port  is  open. 
In  emergency  position  the  brake  pipe  is  connected  to  the  at- 
mosphere through  large  and  direct  ports;  in  this  position  all 
other  ports  in  the  brake  valve  are  closed  except  the  straight 
air  ports,  which  are  open  to  the  locomotive  brake  cylinders. 

Q.  3.  How  is  the  brake  pipe  pressure  regulated  with  tJ^is 
equipment? 

A.  3.     By  the  pressure  controller. 

Q.  4.     Where  is  the  pressure  controller  located? 

A.  4.  In  the  pipe  between  the  brake  valve  and  main  rese*'- 
voir. 

Q.  5.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  accelerator  valve? 

A.  5.  The  accelerator  valve  accelerates  or  hastens  the  dis 
charge  of  air  from  the  brake  pipe  when  making  a  service  ap' 
plication  of  the  brake  on  an  exceptionally  long  train. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Q.  1.     Explain  the  operation  of  the  quick-action  triple  valve. 

A.  1.  In  release  position  the  auxiliary  reservoir  is  charged 
from  the  brake  pipe  past  the  triple  piston  through  the  feed 
groove.  A  gradual  brake  pipe  reduction  causes  auxiliary  reser- 
voir pressure  to  move  the  piston,  slide  and  graduating  valvea 
to  application  position,  admitting  air  from  the  auxiliary  reser- 


590  EXAMINATIONS. 

voir  to  the  brake  cylinder;  when  the  pressure  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  becomes  a  trifle  lower  than  the  brake  pipe  pressure, 
brake  pipe  pressure  moves  the  piston  and  graduating  valve  to 
lap,  thereby  stopping  the  flow  of  air  from  the  reservoir  to  the 
brake  cylinder. 

A  sudden  reduction  of  brake  pipe  pressure  causes  auxiliary 
reservoir  pressure  to  move  the  piston  and  slide  valve  to  their 
extreme  travel,  which  admits  air  above  the  emergency  piston 
forcing  it  and  the  emergency  valve  down,  which  then  permits 
brake  pipe  pressure  to  raise  the  check  valve  and  pass  to  the 
brake  cylinder;  auxiliary  reservoir  air  also  flows  to  the  brake 
cylinder  until  equalized.  By  restoring  brake  pipe  pressure  the 
piston  and  slide  valve  are  moved  to  release  position,  exhaust- 
ing the  air  from  the  brake  cylinder  and  recharging  the  auxil- 
iary reservoir. 

Q.  2.  What  additional  features  are  found  in  the  "K"  triple 
that  are  not  found  in  the  older  types  of  triples? 

A.  2.  The  venting  of  the  brake  pipe  air  to  the  brake  cylin- 
der in  service  application.  Retarded  release  and  restricted  re- 
charge. 

Q.  3.     What  is  meant  by  quick  service? 

A.  3.  As  a  result  of  venting  the  brake  pipe  pressure  to  the 
brake  cylinder,  which  increases  the  rate  of  reduction  under 
each  car,  the  application  is  hastened  throughout  the  train. 

Q.  4.  What  is  meant  by  retarded  release?  How  is  it  ob- 
tained, and  in  what  part  of  the  train? 

A.  4.  By  retarded  release  is  meant  the  retarding  or  re- 
stricting the  exhaust  of  brake  cylinder  air  in  the  release  of  an 
application  of  the  brakes.  When  rise  of  brake  pipe  pressure  is 
rapid,  the  triple  valve  is  moved  to  retarded  release  position; 
in  this  position  the  brake  cylinder  pressure  is  exhausted 
through  a  restricted  port,  thereby  delaying  the  release.  Re- 
tarded release  may  be  had  on  about  the  first  thirty  cars  in 
the  train. 

Q.  5.  Explain  the  operation  of  the  high-speed  reducing 
valve? 

A.  5.  The  construction  of  the  high-speed  reducing  valve  is 
such  that,  when  the  pressure  in  the  brake  cylinder  exceeds  60 
pounds,  it  will  automatically  make  an  opening  from  the  brake 
cylinder  to  the  atmosphere  and  allow  the  air  to  discharge  until 
the  pressure  has  been  reduced  to  about  60  pounds,  when  it  will 
close,  holding  about  60  pounds  in  the  brake  cylinder.  With  an 
emergency  application  it  is  so  constructed  that  it  will  reduce 
the  pressure  from  the  brake  cylinder  to  the  atmosphere  from 
85  pounds  to  60  pounds  in  about  27  seconds. 

Q.  6.  What  are  the  essential  parts  of  the  P  C  brake  as 
applied  to  a  passenger  car? 


EXAMINATIONS.  591 

A.  6.  One  service  reservoir  and  brake  cylinder,  one  emer- 
gency reservoir  and  brake  cylinder,  and  a  control  valve  and  its 
divided  reservoir. 

Q.  7.  In  making  a  service  application  with  the  P  C  brake, 
how  low  can  the  brake  pipe  pressure  be  reduced  before  emer- 
gency application  takes  place? 

A.  7.     To  one-half  of  the  original  brake  pipe  pressure. 

Q.  8.  In  making  a  service  application  what  brake  pipe  re- 
duction is  necessary  to  insure  the  P  C  brake  applying? 

A.  8.     Not  less  than  8  pounds. 

Q.  9.  When  should  the  brakes  be  released  after  an  emer- 
gency application  from  any  cause,  and  when  should  you  pro- 
ceed? 

A.  9.  After  train  has  stopped  and  brake  pipe  pressure  has 
been  restored  to  within  10  pounds  of  the  normal  pressure. 

Q.  10.     What  is  meant  by  an  application  of  the  brakes? 

A.  10.  The  first  and  including  all  subsequent  reductions 
until  the  brakes  are  released. 

Q.  11.  How  many  applications  of  the  brakes  should  be  made 
when  making  a  stop  with  a  passenger  train,  and  why? 

A.  11.  Two,  to  insure  greater  accuracy,  and  to  avoid  sliding 
of  wheels  and  disagreeable  back  lurch. 

Q.  12.  Explain  how  you  would  make  an  ordinary  service 
stop  with  a  long  freight  train.  What  should  the  first  reduction 
be,  and  why? 

A.  12.  I  would  move  brake  valve  from  running  to  service 
position,  making  at  least  7  to  10  pounds  reduction,  and 
would  endeavor  to  make  it  so  as  to  stop  train  at  the  desired 
point,  but  when  about  40  feet  from  the  stopping  point  would 
start  another  reduction  in  order  to  increase  the  brake  power 
on  the  forward  end  of  train  but  not  on  rear  end  and  prevent 
slack  stretching  at  time  of  stopping.  Before  releasing  the 
brakes  the  total  brake  pipe  reduction  should  be  20  pounds. 

Q.  13.  Explain  how  a  stop  at  a  water  tank  or  coal  chute 
should  be  made  with  a  long  freight  train. 

A.  13.  Make  the  ordinary  service  stop,  not  trying  to  "spot" 
the  locomotive,  but  cutting  off  to  obtain  the  supply. 

Q.  14.  In  making  a  stop  with  a  freight  train,  why  should 
the  brakes  not  be  released  until  stop  is  completed? 

A.  14.  Because  the  head  brakes  will  release  first  and  slack 
run  out  before  the  rear  brakes  release,  resulting  in  a  break-in- 
two  or  damage  to  equipment  that  will  later  on  cause  this 
trouble. 

Q.  15.  In  releasing  brakes  on  a  long  freight  train,  what 
should  the  engineman  do  to  be  sure  that  all  brakes  are  re- 
leased? 

A.  15.    The  brake  valve  handle  should  be  placed  in  full  re- 


592  EXAMINATIONS. 

lease  position  and  allowed  to  remain  there  until  the  brake  pipe 
pressure  has  been  restored  to  within  5  pounds  of  the  normal. 

Q.  16.  If  the  brakes  are  dragging,  how  can  they  be  released 
from  the  engine? 

A.  16.  By  making  a  reduction  of  brake  pipe  pressure,  then 
placing  the  valve  in  full  release  position  long  enough  to  release 
all  brakes,  and  then  placing  the  valve  in  running  position  and 
leaving  it  there.  With  trains  of  60  or  more  cars  when  moving 
at  a  speed  of  15  miles  or  less  per  hour,  come  to  a  stop. 

Q.  17.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to  repeatedl.  apply  and  release 
the  brakes  on  grades  without  giving  time  for  the  auxiliaries  to 
fully  discharge? 

A.  17.  As  the  feed  ports  in  the  triple  valve  are  small,  it  re- 
quires considerable  time  to  recharge  the  auxiliary  reservoir, 
and  if  the  brakes  are  repeatedly  applied  and  released  without 
suflScient  interval  of  time  to  recharge,  and  braking  power  would 
be  lost. 

Q.  18.  What  benefits  are  derived  from  the  use  of  the  retain- 
ing valve? 

A.  18.  When  operated,  it  will  retain  a  certain  pressure  in 
the  brake  cylinder,  thereby  assisting  in  retarding  the  move- 
ment of  trains  down  grades  while  the  brake  pipe  and  auxiliary 
reservoirs  are  being  recharged,  and  will  give  a  higher  braking 
power  on  second  application  with  the  same  reduction. 

Q.  19.  What  does  it  indicate  when  making  a  service  appli- 
cation, if  the  exhaust  port  closes  quickly,  and  the  brakes  go 
on  hard? 

A.  19.     That  the  brakes  have  applied  in  emergency. 

Q.  20.  When  the  brakes  apply  suddenly,  what  should  en- 
^ineman  do? 

A.  20.     Immediately  shut  off  steam  and  lap  the  brake  valve. 

Q.  21.  In  case  a  hose  should  burst  while  on  the  road,  what 
should  the  engineman  do  to  assist  the  trainmen  in  locating  it? 

A.  21.  After  the  train  has  come  to  a  full  stop,  the  engineer 
should  occasionally  move  the  brake  valve  to  full  release  posi- 
tion for  an  instant,  then  return  to  lap  position;  by  so  doing 
there  will  be  enough  air  admitted  into  the  brake  pipe  to  cause 
a  blow  at  the  point  where  the  hose  is  burst. 

Q.  22.  When  double  heading,  which  engineman  should  have 
full  control  of  the  brakes  and  what  should  the  other  one  do? 

A.  22.  The  head  engineer  should  have  full  control  of  the 
brakes.  The  second  engineer  should  have  the  cut-out  cock 
closed  under  the  brake  valve. 

Q.  23.  As  a  rule,  how  great  a  reduction  of  brake  pipe  pres- 
sure is  necessary  to  insure  the  brake  piston  being  moved  by  the 
leakage  groove? 


EXAMINATIONS.  593 

A.  23.  This  varies  with  the  length  of  the  train  but  should 
never  be  less  than  5  pounds. 

Q.  24.  From  a  70-pound  brake  pipe  pressure,  how  much  ol 
a  reduction  will  be  required  to  apply  the  brakes  in  full,  and 
why? 

A.  24.  About  20  pounds,  after  which  brake  cylinder  and 
auxiliary  reservoir  pressure  are  equalized. 

Q.  25.  What  effect  has  the  piston  travel  on  the  pressure 
developed  in  the  brake  cylinder? 

A.  25.  The  distance  the  piston  travels  determines  the  space 
to  be  filled  by  the  air  that  is  permitted  to  flow  from  the  auxiliary 
to  the  cylinder,  and  the  pressure,  therefore,  developed  in  the 
cylinder  will  be  inversely  proportional  to  the  space  the  air 
fills.  If  the  space  is  small,  the  pressure  will  be  higher  than  if 
space  is  large. 

Q.  26.    When  should  the  brakes  be  tested?    , 

A.  26.  Before  leaving  a  terminal,  after  angle  cock  has  been 
closed  for  any  cause,  and  at  all  designated  points. 

Q.  27.  How  should  the  brake  valve  be  handled  when  making 
a  terminal  test  of  the  brakes? 

A.  27.  Make  a  reduction  of  about  10  pounds  and  note  the 
length  of  brake  pipe  service  exhaust,  then  make  a  further  re- 
duction of  about  15  pounds  and  hold  the  brake  on  until  sig- 
naled to  release,  and  do  not  go  until  signaled  that  all  brakes 
have  been  applied  and  released. 

Q.  28.  What  is  meant  by  a  running  test?  How  and  at  what 
points  on  the  road  should  it  be  made? 

A.  28.  Apply  the  brakes  lightly  while  the  train  is  in  motion, 
and  note  the  blow  that  joomes  from  the  brake  pipe  exhaust; 
when  the  efficiency  of  the  air  brakes  is  known,  the  brakes 
should  be  at  once  released.  It  should  be  made  approaching  all 
railroad  crossings,  drawbridges,  and  all  hazardous  places,  and 
within  half  a  mile  after  standing  test  has  been  made. 

Q.  29.  What  is  the  proper  brake  cylinder  piston  travel  on 
engine  and  tender? 

A.  29.  On  engine  and  tender  the  piston  travel  should  be 
such  as  to  permit  auxiliary  reservoir  and  brake  cylinder  pres- 
sure to  equalize  at  50  pounds  from  a  brake  pipe  pressure  of 
70  pounds. 

On  cars  the  piston  travel  should  be  adjusted  to  not  less  than 
5   inches  nor  more  than  7  inches. 

Q.  30.  How  is  the  slack  taken  up  on  engine  and  tender 
brakes? 

A.  30.  On  engine  by  the  adjusting  screw  and  on  tender  by 
the  dead  lever  on  each  truck  and  by  adjusting  the  lower  con- 
necting rod. 


594  EXAMINATIONS. 

Q.  31.  How  often  should  the  main  reservoir  be  drained, 
and  why? 

A.  31.  At  the  end  of  each  trip,  as  an  accumulation  of  water 
in  the  main  reservoir  reduces  its  volume  and  is  liable  to  cause 
trouble  in  the  brake  system. 

Q.  32.  What  is  the  dead  engine  device,  and  when  should  it 
be  used? 

A.  32.  The  dead  engine  device  consists  of  a  %"  cut-out 
cock  and  combined  strainer  and  check  valve  with  suitable 
choke  connections  between  the  brake  pipe  and  main  reservoirs. 
It  is  used  for  the  operation  of  locomotive  brakes  when  the 
engine  is  being  handled  "dead"  in  the  train,  or  the  air  pump 
is  disabled. 

Q.  33.  Why  is  it  important  that  piston  travel  be  kept  prop- 
erly adjusted? 

A.  33.  To  insure  a  prompt  application  or  release  of  the  loco- 
motive brake,  economy  in  the  use  of  air,  and  also  to  provide 
proper  braking  power. 

Q.  34.  What  danger  would  there  be  from  a  leak  of  main 
reservoir  air  to  the  brake  pipe,  brakes  applied,  lap  position? 

A.  34.     The  brakes  would  release. 

Q.  35.  Do  you  think  it  good  practice  to  reverse  the  engine 
while  the  driver  brake  is  applied,  and  why? 

A.  35.  No,  on  account  of  wheels  sliding  and  reducing  brak- 
ing power. 

FEDERAL  REGULATIONS  FOR  INSPECTION 
OF  LOCOMOTIVE  BOILERS 

Q.  1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Federal  Rules  and  Regu- 
lations for  inspection  of  locomotive  boilers? 

A.  1.  To  prevent  as  far  as  possible  an  engine  being  in 
service,  or  shown  O.  K.  for  service  at  a  terminal,  with  any  leaks 
in  boiler  or  any  of  the  appurtenances  not  in  good  order. 

^  Q.  2.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  quarterly  and  monthly 
Interstate  inspection  cards  placed  in  the  cab  of  the  locomotive? 

A.  2.  To  enable  the  engineer  and  the  federal  inspector  to 
see  that  the  quarterly  and  monthly  inspections  have  been  made. 
The  monthly  inspection  indicates  what  pressure  the  safety 
valves  have  been  set  to  carry,  and  when  steam  gauges  were  last 
tested;  when  boiler  was  last  washed,  and  gauge  cocks  and 
water  glass  spindles  removed  and  cocks  cleaned;  when  both 
injectors  were  tested  and  left  in  good  condition;  when  all 
steam  leaks  were  repaired;  condition  of  flues  and  firebox  sheets, 
staybolts  and  crown  stays,  arch  and  water  bar  tubes,  together 
with  date  of  previous  hydrostatic  test. 

The  quarterly  inspection  card  indicates  the  date  when  safety 


EXAMINATIONS.  595 

valves  and  steam  gauges  were  tested,  date  of  last  hydrostatic 
test,  and  certifies  that  the  boiler  and  appurtenances  have  been 
inspected  as  required  by  law  and  the  rules  of  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission. 

FEDERAL  REGULATIONS  FOR  SAFETY  APPLIANCES* 

Q.  1.  What  constitutes  a  safety  appliance,  as  applied  to 
a  locomotive? 

A.  1.  Such  parts  of  a  locomotive  as  are  especially  con- 
structed and  applied  with  a  view  of  protecting  against  personal 
injury  to  employes  whose  duties  require  them  to  work  on  or 
about  the  engine. 

Q.  2.  Name  some  of  the  safety  appliances  found  on  a 
locomotive? 

A.  2.  The  air  brake  steps,  ladders,  handholds  and  hand 
rails,  couplers  and  coupler  operating  levers. 

Q.  3.  In  what  condition  should  safety  appliances  be  main- 
tained ? 

A.  3.     They  should  be  maintained  in  perfect  condition. 

Q.  4.  What  should  be  done  in  event  of  any  of  the  safety 
appliances  being  damaged  while  engine  is  in  service  so  as  to 
render  it  unsafe? 

A.  4.  It  should  be  reported  at  once  to  some  person  in 
authority  who  can  relieve  the  engine  from  service  until  the 
necessary  repairs  are  made. 

Q.  5.  What  effort  should  be  made  on  the  part  of  the  engi- 
neer to  prevent  persons  using  a  safety  appliance  which  he 
knows  is  damaged  and  unsafe? 

A.  5.  He  should  warn  all  persons  on  or  about  the  engine, 
who  are  liable  to  use  the  damaged  part  of  its  unsafe  condition. 

Q.  6.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer  in  event  of  his 
discovering  a  safety  appliance  which  is  in  an  unsafe  condition 
when  taking  an  engine  from  roundhouse  territory? 

A.  6.  He  should  at  once  call  the  attention  of  roundhouse 
foreman  or  one  of  his  assistants  to  the  condition  of  this  safety 
appliance,  so  that  necessary  repairs  can  be  made  before  the 
engine  is  allowed  to  go  into  service. 


•See  volume,  Operating  Trains. 


"596 


EXAMINATIONS. 


The  exhaust  pipe,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  a  pipe  for  carrying  the  ex- 
haust steam  from  the  cylinders  to 
the  smoke-box  of  the  eneine  and  so 
through  the  smokestack.  Suitably 
attached  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
exhaust  pipe  is  the  exhaust  tip  or 
nozzle,  the  size  of  which  is  altered 
in  accordance  with  the  draught  re- 
quirements of  the  engine — a  small 
exhaust  creates  a  powerful  draught, 
and  vice  versa.  (See  Figs.  2  and  3. ) 
The  steam  is  carried  to  the  smoke- 
stack for  the  purpose  of  creating  a 
forced  draught  through  the  tire-box. 


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EXAMINATIONS. 


609 


Blocking  for  Broken  Driver  Springs. 


FMa.  26. 


'^JS'rvKenHang^rlReplacect  hy  a  Chain  -^ 


Fig.  26^ 


side  View  of  American  Bogie  (or  Pony)  Truck,  supporting 

forward  end  of  locomotive. 


€10 


EXAMINATIOJSS. 


JFi^.27. 


^(^raphicD^Lnittona  o^tuli/eJJimenjlons^^ 


For  the  purpose  of  particularizing  the  various  positions  of 
the  driving  wheel    crank   (when   occasion    requires),    the    360 

degrees  through  which 
it  passes  are  divided  into 
eight  parts;  the  "upper 
quarter"  represents  the 
crank  piu  when  directly 
above  the  main  axle;  the 
"lower  quarter"  when 
directly  below  it;  the 
"forward  center"  lo- 
cates the  crank  pin  on  a 
straight  line  between  the 
main  axle  and  the  cylin- 
der, the  "back  center" 
180  degrees  from  there. 
Fig.  28.  The  "eights"  are  the  up- 

per, lower,  forward  and  back,  as  shown  by  diagram. 


EXAMINATIONS. 


611 


1^1^.29.  T'iff.SO. 

-^Tafojlhtkaia  of  Chaining  Uf>  TracK  forBnJttn  Wuitorjlfi*-, 


^ectrn  T£U%/» 


JryecTor  JPrinciple 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

HOW    OIL   IS    USED    FOR   FUEL   ON    LOCOMOTIVES. 
WHAT  FUEL  OIL  IS  AND  HOW  OBTAINED. 

Fuel  oil,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  America, 
is  known  to  the  commerce  of  the  world  as  Pe- 
troleum, a  word  coined  from  two  latin  terms 
yeti^a  a  rock  and  oleum  oil,  and  which  accurately 
describes  the  liquid  which  is  found  in  the  earth 
naturally  in  many  parts  of  the  globe  and  is  be- 
lieved to  be  formed  by  the  gradual  decomposi- 
tion of  vegetable  matter  beneath  the  surface. 

The  oil  varies  much  in  color  and  consistency  in 
different  localities.  In  some  places  it  is  of  a 
faint  yellow  color  thin  and  almost  transparent; 
in  others  of  a  brownish  black  color  sometimes  as 
thick  as  molasses.  It  is  found  in  most  European 
countries  and  in  the  United  States;  it  has  been 
for  many  years  abundant  in  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  Ohio  and  Indiana,  and  latterly  has  been 
found  in  large  quantities  in  the  States  of  Cal- 
ifornia and  Texas. 

Generally  speaking,  the  oil  is  brought  to  the 
surface  by  means  of  pumping  from  wells;  in 
some  instances,  however,  the  supply  is  so  abund- 
ant that  the  wells  have  a  natural  flow;  some- 
times also  it  is  found  oozing  from  the  crevices  of 
rocks  or  floating  on  the  surface  of  water. 

The  existence  of  petroleum  has  been  known  in 
the  states  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  from 

(613) 


614  now  OIL  IS  USED 

the  earliest  Colonial  days.  It  was  not  till  the 
year  1859,  however,  that  it  began  to  be  of  com- 
mercial importance  in  America;  in  that  year 
wells  began  to  be  systematically  bored.  The 
product  of  the  oil  fields  of  New  York  and  Penn- 
sylvania has  been  and  is,  utilized  principally  as 
an  illuminant,  the  crude  oil  being  for  that  purpose 
refined  and  marketed  in  the  form  of  Kerosene. 
This  industry  has  grown  to  enormous  propor- 
tions, not  only  supplying  America  with  sufficient 
for  home  consumption,  but  exporting  a  vast 
quantity  annually  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 


FOR  FTTEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


615 


Fig.  1. 

OIL  FIELDa 


616  now  OIL  IS  USED 

THE  USE  OF  OIL  AS  FUEL ITS  ADVANTAGES  UNDEB 

FAVORABLE  CONDITIONS. 

The  use  of  oil  as  fuel  is  no  new  thing;  it  can 
be  traced  to  the  times  of  remote  antiquity.  Its 
scientific  adoption  to  industrial  purposes  com- 
menced, however,  not  earlier  than  about  the 
year  1860.  In  1870  it  was  used  during  the  great 
siege  of  Paris  in  France  when  the  city's  supply 
of  coal  had  been  exhausted  and  we  are  told  it 
was  the  means  of  enabling  the  city  to  keep  sev- 
eral of  its  large  factories  going  and  to  grind  its 
flour  by  steam  while  it  was  begirt  by  its  enemies. 

Conditions  will  have  to  change  very  much  be- 
fore oil  can  come  into  general  use  as  fuel  for  in- 
dustrial purposes  by  reason  of  its  greater  cost  at 
present  as  compared  with  that  universal  fuel, 
coal.  In  favored  countries  or  districts,  however, 
where  the  supply  is  plenteous  and  close  at  hand, 
or  whpre  coal  is  more  remote  and  the  difficulty 
of  cost  does  not  stand  in  the  way  of  its  econom- 
ical use,  it  seems  certain  that  oil  will  be  more 
and  more  used  because  the  mechanical  difficul- 
ties attending  its  use  are  one  by  one  being  over- 
come. More  than  a  decade  ago  in  the  Caspian 
region  where  petroleum  is  plentiful  the  appara- 
tus for  its  consumption  had  been  measurably 
perfected  and  oil  for  fuel  had  replaced  wood  and 
coal  on  all  the  steamers  plying  on  the  Caspian 
Sea  and  on  the  locomotives  of  the  Trans-Cau- 
casian Railway  as  well  as  in  the  furnaces  and 
factories  of  that  district. 

With  the  discovery  of  new  sources  of  oil  sup- 
ply in  America  its  availability  as  fuel  on  loco- 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  617 

motives  has  become  general  in  certain  districts, 
and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  further 
supplies  will  be  found  and  the  field  for  its  use  be 
correspondingly  enlarged,  so  that  the  subject  has 
become,  and  will  be  in  the  future,  of  great  inter- 
est to  those  concerned  with  the  motive  power  of 
our  railroads.* 

Petroleum  as  a  fuel  for  locomotives  is  said, 
apart  from  the  economic  question  of  cost,  to  be 
infinitely  superior  to  coal:  It  is  smokeless;  free 
from  dirt  and  dust;  can  be  instantly  lighted;  re- 
quires no  stoking;  can  be  regulated  instantly  and 
easily;  requires  much  less  storage  room,  and  its 
calorific  power  for  purposes  of  generating  steam 
is  several  times  greater  than  that  of  ordinary 
coal.  There  are,  in  fact,  many  things  to  be  said 
in  its  favor  for  this  purpose  but  few  against  it : 
While  it  is  true  that  its  use  reduces  the  life  of 
the  flues  and  firebox  about  twenty-five  per  cent 
yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  emits  no  sparks  to 
cause  conflagrations  along  the  right  of  way  or 
set  fire  to  stations,  buildings,  or  equipment;  the 
cost  of  handling  it  is  at  least  seventy-five  per 
cent  less  than  coal;  no  clinkers  have  to  be  re- 
moved at  terminals  or  on  the  road;  its  use  re- 
duces the  time  consumed  in  turning  the  engine;  it 
makes  no  refuse  or  cinders  to  be  taken  care  of;  it 
insures  freer   steaming  and  freer  running  loco- 


*In  the  United  States  it  is  said  that  oil  for  locomotive  fuel 
at  $1.00  per  barrel  is  aa  economical  equivalent  of  coal  at  $4.0? 
per  ton.  At  some  points  where  oil  is  now  obtainable  at  the  price 
mentioned  coal  costs  from  $7.00  to  $8.00  per  ton.  Its  great 
economic  value  under  such  circumstances  is  apparent. 


618  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

motives  and  consequently  affords  greater  ability 
to  handle  maximum  loads;  furnishing  a  uniform 
grade  of  fuel,  it  becomes  practicable  to  adjust 
draft  appliances  so  as  to  get  the  best  results  un- 
der all  conditions;  owing  to  the  easy  and  exact 
regulation  of  the  fire  possible,  the  greatest  econ- 
omy in  firing  is  possible,  as  the  labor  of  firing 
coal  conduces  to  extravagance  in  its  use;  and, 
finally,  the  fuel  supply  can  be  taken  at  stations 
simultaneously  with  water  very  rapidly  and 
without  waste. 

SPECIAL  ADAPTATION  OF  LOCOMOTIVES THE  TENDER. 

Locomotives  on  which  oil  is  used  for  fuel  must 
be  specially  adapted  for  the  purpose.  From  the 
delivery  or  supply  tank  the  oil  is  conveyed  to  a 
tank  in  the  tender  which  is  generally  a  separate 
receptacle  fitted  in  the  space  ordinarily  used  for 
coal.  The  arrangement  of  the  tender  is  indicated 
in  the  following  illustrations.  Figure  2  shows 
the  outside  appearance  of  a  tender  equipped  for 
oil  burning. 


FOR  FUEL  OX  LOCOMOTIVES. 


619 


Fig.  2. 

APPEARANCE  OF  TENDER  EQUIPPED  FOR  OIL  BURNING. 

Figure  3  shows  the  details  of  the  tender 
equipment  as  used  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 
way. 


620 


HOW  OIL  IS  U8ED 


re 


=^N 


rfQ&tt  CofxJco^a  i,ream 


kj 


*^  Stam  ftoftr  Con 
"Oil  npt  n  Surnv 


Fig.  3. 

DETAILS  OF  TENDER  EQUIPMENT-SOUTHERN  PACIFIC. 


THE    HEATER   COIL   IN    TENDER. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  supply  or  delivery  tank  so 
also  the  oil  tank  on  the  engine  tender  must  be 
provided  with  a  heater  coil  to  which  in  cold 
weather  steam  can  be  admitted  from  the  boiler 
so  as  to  reduce  the  oil  to  a  proper  consistency. 
This  heater  coil  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  No.  4. 

THE  PIPING  AND  APPLIANCES  ON  TENDER  AND  ENGINE. 

The  oil  tanks  in  the  engine  tender  are  fitted 
with  automatic  safety  valves  with  a  small  chain 
or  rope  connection  to  the  back  of  the  engine  cab 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


621 


'<wvip.o?»?»f 


622  UOW  OIL  IS  USED 

with  a  spring  key  which  passes  through  the 
upright  rod  of  the  safety  valve  so  that  in  case  the 
engine  breaks  apart  from  the  tender  the  rope  or 
chain  will  pull  the  spring  key  out  of  the  rod 
when  the  safety  valve  will  close  automatically 
and  stop  the  flow  of  oil  from  the  tank. 

The  following  illustrations,  Figures  5,  6,  7  and 
8  indicate  the  details  of  the  piping  on  the  tender, 
the  safety  valve,  the  delivery  pipe  and  tittings 
and  the  hose  and  fittings  as  used  on  the  Santa 
Fe  system. 

In  localities  where  heavy  oil  is  used  it  is 
necessary  to  carry  about  five  pounds  pressure  in 
the  tender  oil  tanks  to  facilitate  the  proper  flow 
of  the  oil.  With  light  gravity  oil,  however,  and 
in  warm  weather  such  pressure  is  not  necessary. 
The  illustration.  Fig.  9,  shows  very  clearly  the 
general  arrangement  of  an  oil  burning  locomo- 
tive. 


FOR  FUEL  OX  LOCOMOTIVES. 


623 


J ■  FCAnGt]  BOLTtDTQTAi^  with".4  -^'Boi-TS 


r3 


I2f^ 


V ^. 


n^ 


JBOLT. 


624 


HOW  OIL  IS  USED 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


625 


626 


HOW  OIL  IS  USED 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


62^ 


628  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

THE   LOCOMOTIVE.      CONVERTING    A    COAL   BURNER   TO 

AN    OIL    BURNER.       PIPING    AND    BRICK 

WORK    IN    LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  locomotive  shown  in  Fig.  9  is  one  converted 
from  a  coal  burner  to  oil  and  shows  the  position 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  oil  apparatus.  In 
converting  a  coal  burning  engine  to  an  oil  burner 
it  is  necessary  first  to  remove  the  grates  and 
grate  frame  and  remodel  the  ash  pan  by 
applying  a  suitable  casting  fitting  the  inside  of 
the  pan  and  riveted  on  the  sides  and  near  the  top 
of  the  pan ;  this  casting  acts  as  a  support  for  the 
brick  work  on  the  sides  of  the  fire  box  and  is 
cored  out  to  admit  the  proper  amount  of  air 
necessary  for  combustion  to  the  fire  box.  The 
brick  arch  should  be  built  as  low  as  possible,  the 
main  purpose  of  which  is  to  protect  the  crown 
sheet,  crown  bolts  and  seams  from  overheating. 
The  oil  burner  should  be  secured  to  the  bottom 
of  the  mud  ring  exactly  central  and  should  be 
placed  at  such  an  angle  that  the  jet  or  spray  of 
oil  will  strike  just  below  or  under  the  arch. 
Details  of  the  arrangements  of  piping  and  brick- 
work of  an  oil  burning  locomotive  are  given  in 
the  accompanying  illustration,  (Fig.  10.) 

The  details  of  the  fire  brick  used  in  the 
construction  of  an  oil  burning  locomotive  are 
shown  in  the  drawing,  Figure  11. 

For  the  side  walls  and  inverted  arch  ordinary 
commercial  fire  brick  is  used.  Experience  has 
shown  that  fire  bricks  which  soften  under  heat 
are  preferable  as  they  form  a  bond  which  adds 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


629 


I.     ».    U     I' 


Fig.  10. 

FIREBOX  EQUIPMENT— SOUTHERN  PACIFIC. 

strength  to  the  wall  and  prevents  it  shattering 
under  the  shocks  incident  to  the  service.  Fire 
bricks  which  have  very  high  heat-resisting  qual- 
ities and  which  tend  to  crock  when  cooling  are 
said  to  be  of  little  use. 

THE  BURNER    OR    ATOMIZER. 

One  of  the  principal  devices  essential  to  the 
oil  burning  locomotive  is,  of  course,  the  burner 
or  atomizer,  of  which  several  designs  are  illus- 
trated in  the  following  drawings.  (Figs.  12,  13, 
14  and  15.) 

The  function  of  the  burner  or  atomizer  is  to 
break  up  the  oil  into  a  very  fine  spray.  It  is 
made  of  brass.     In  the  Santa  Fe  burner,  steam 


630 


now  OIL  IS  USED 


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FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIYFS. 


631 


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632 


HOW  OIL  IS  USED 


'ueiivA^i4   xuoiu 


FOR  FUEL  OX  LOCOMOTIVES. 


633 


Fig.  14. 

DETAILS  OP  OIL  BTJRNER— SANTA  PE. 


634 


HOW  OIL  IS  USED 


Fig.  15. 

DETAILS  OF  OIL  BURNER— SOUTHERN  PACIFIC. 

enters  the  bottom  part  at  one  end  and  issues 
through  a  slit  at  the  other  end.  The  oil  flows 
through  the  upper  part  of  the  burner  over  the 
hot  partition  and  on  issuing  is  caught  by  the 
steam  and  sprayed  into  the  fire,  which,  when  the 
engine  is  working,  is  a  mass  of  flame  filling  the 
fire  box.  The  supply  of  steam  and  oil  to  the 
burner  is  regulated  by  the  fireman  from  the  cab, 
the  handles  of  the  steam  and  oil  supply  valves 
being  located  so  that  he  can  readily  manipulate 
them  from  his  seat. 

The  Santa  Fe  burner  is  rigidly  attached  to  the 
mud  ring;  it  is  a  casting  having  an  oblong 
passage.  One  end  of  the  casting  is  enlarged 
to  receive  connection  with  oil  and  steam 
pipes  otie  above  the  other.  The  mouth  of  the 
steam  passage  is  directly  underneath  the  mouth 
of  the  oil  passage  and  the  effect  of  the  steam 
pressure  is  to  spray  the  oil  as  it  flows  from  the 
upper  passage. 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  03.1 

In  the  Southern  Pacific  burner  there  are  three 
passages:  one  for  oil,  one  for  steam,  one  for  air. 
The  oil  enters  the  rear  of  the  burner  from  above, 
air  is  conveyed  from  below  through  a  naiTower 
passage  to  a  common  mouth  just  behind  which 
terminates  a  central  tube  supplying  steam.  The 
mixture  of  oil,  air  and  steam  is  there  sprayed 
into  the  fire  box  through  one  nozzle.  In  the 
Southern  Pacific  arrangement  the  burner  is  lo- 
cated near  the  upper  part  of  the  bricked  portion 
of  the  fire  box  probably  for  the  reason  that  the 
form  of  nozzle  causes  the  spray  to  be  thrown 
down  as  well  as  up.* 

THE  HEATER  BOX. 

In  order  to  provide  against  the  effect  of  cold 
weather,  or  where  the  oil  is  heavy  or  lacking  in 
fluidity,  a  heater  box  is  placed  between  the 
burner  and  the  oil  tank  the  purpose  of  which  is 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  oil  to  as  high  a 
temperature  as  possible  before  it  goes  into  the 
burner.  The  construction  of  this  box  is  shown 
in  the  following  illustration,  (Fig.  16). 


*The  methods  adopted  for  using  oil  for  fuel  have  advanced 
step  by  step  as  is  the  case  with  all  mechanical  devices.  First 
came  the  Hearth  furnace  in  which  the  liquid  is  thinly  distributed 
in  pans  or  other  receptacles  and  burned;  then  the  Gas  furnace 
in  which  the  oil  is  transformed  into  gas  before  combustion,  and, 
finally,  the  Atomizer  by  which  the  oil  is  divided  into  atoms  so 
that  it  can  be  nearly  completely  consumed  in  a  vaporous  condi- 
tion. The  atomizer  is  the  device  adopted  and  used  on  Ameri- 
can locomotives.  It  is  certain  however  that  the  final  stage  has 
not  been  reached  in  the  development  of  mechanical  appliances 
for  the  combustion  of  oil. 


636 


now  OIL  IS  USED 


J  un  CKiTcocK  cOMriLCTtD  TO  NtXn*)BM 

WITH  CLOSe  nlPPLE  . 


ALL  FiTTinoi-SrO   ^ 

SKE.TCH    OF     HCATE.R   BOX    FITTCD  OP. 

Fig.  16. 

OBTAILS  OP  OIL  HEATER  BOX-SANTA  FK. 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES,  637 

^  CAB    APPLIANCES. 

Detail  drawings  of  the  three  way  cock  blower 
pipe  connection  to  smoke  arch  and  of  the  oil 
throttle  valve  handle  are  shown  in  the  following 
drawings,  (Figs.  17  and  18). 

CLEANING    FLUES.     SAND    FUNNEL. 

In  the  operation  of  the  oil  burning  locomotive 
it  becomes  necessary  occasionally  to  remove  the 
gum  and  soot  generated  in  the  combustion  of 
the  oil  from  the  boiler  flues.  To  effect  this  a 
funnel  is  used  which  is  inserted  in  the  fire  door 
through  which  sand  is  blown  by  steam  with 
force,  the  sand  thus  blown  through  the  flues 
carrying  with  it  the  accretions  of  soot.  A  detail 
drawing  of  this  funnel  is  shown  in  Fig.  19. 


6S8 


HOW  OIL  IS  USED 


FOB  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


639 


l-H 


G40 


now  OIL  IS  USED 


-     fc  2 


FOB  FUEL  CN  LOCOMOTIVES.  641 

SPECIFIC  RULES  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  FIRING 
AND  OPERATING. 

In  the  operation  of  oil  burning  locomotives  the 
following  practical  rules  and  regulations  have 
been  adopted: 

In  firiug  up  an  oil  burning  locomotive  in  the 
round  house  steam  connection  is  made  to  the 
three  way  cock  on  the  smoke  arch  which  acts  as 
a  blower  and  atomizer  at  the  same  time ;  then 
throw  in  the  fire  box,  in  front  of  the  burner,  a 
piece  of  greasy  lighted  w^aist;  then  start  the  oil 
to  running  slightly;  then  open  the  atomizer  valve 
enough  to  atomize  the  oil  which  is  flowing  from 
the  burner,  and  the  oil  will  instantly  ignite.  The 
fire  should  be  watched  until  steam  begins  to 
generate  in  the  engine,  when  the  round  house 
steam  can  be  cut  off.  Care  should  be  taken  not 
to  turn  on  too  much  oil,  for  the  explosion  would 
drive  the  flame  out  of  the  fire  box  and  might  be 
the  cause  of  injury  to  the  operator.  Care  must 
also  be  taken  to  see  that  the  fire  does  not  go  out 
when  first  started  in  a  cold  engine;  if  it  does  and 
is  not  noticed  the  oil  will  run  into  the  pit  and 
may  take  fire  later  on  and  explode  and  thus 
damage  the  engine.  The  fire  must  therefore  be 
carefully  watchec.  until  its  burning  is  well  assured 
after  which  there  is  little  danger  of  this  happen- 
ing. Fire  going  out  on  an  oil  burning  engine  can 
be  detected  readily  by  observing  the  smoke 
coming  out  of  the  stack.  If  it  is  of  a  white, 
milky  color,  it  indicates  that  the  fire  has  gone 
out  and  that  the  oil  is  still  running  out  into  the 


642  ROW  OIL  IS  USED 

pan;  this  smoke  is  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  brick 
in  the  bottom  of  the  pan.  That  the  fire  has  gone 
out  can  also  be  detected  by  the  odor. 

In  tiring  up  an  oil  burning  locomotive  where 
steam  is  not  available,  wood  may  be  used  until 
ten  or  fifteen  pounds  of  steam  is  generated  in 
the  boiler.  The  Avood  must  be  placed  in  the  fire 
box  with  great  care  so  as  not  to  damage  the  brick 
work,  and  in  using  wood  for  this  purpose  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  causing  fires  along  the 
right  of  way  or  elsewhere. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  proper  amount  of 
steam  be  admitted  to  the  burner  as  an  atomizer. 
It  is  also  very  important  that  the  brick  walls  and 
arch  of  the  locomotive  be  kept  in  perfect 
condition.  Occasionally  small  pieces  of  brick  will 
fall  down  and  lodge  in  front  of  the  burner, 
which  will  interfere  with  the  engine  steaming. 
All  engines  should  be  equipped  with  a  pair  of 
light  tongs  or  a  hook  so  that  the  fireman  can 
remove  these  pieces  of  brick  if  necessary. 

In  oil  burning  engines  it  is  necessary  to  occa- 
sionally use  sand  for  cleaning  the  gum  off  the  end 
of  flues  in  the  fire  box.  This  sand  is  applied  through 
an  elbow-shaped  funnel  made  for  the  purpose; 
the  nozzle  of  the  funnel  is  inserted  through  an 
aperture  in  the  firedoor,  and  when  sand  is  being 
applied  by  the  fireman  the  engineer  drops  the 
lever  in  the  corner  notch  and  has  his  throttle 
wide  open.  This  is  very  effective,  and  is  only  used 
three  or  four  times  in  going  over  a  long  hard  di- 
^dsion. 

In  handling  the  oil  burner  on  the  road  the 
engineers  and  firemen  must  work  in  harmony, 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  643 

i.  e.,  when  an  engineer  wishes  to  shut  off  the 
throttle  he  should  notify  the  fireman  in  time  so 
that  the  latter  can  close  the  oil  valve  in  order  to 
prevent  waste  of  oil,  the  emission  of  black  smoke 
and  the  ''popping  off"  of  the  engine;  and  again, 
in  starting  up,  the  engineer  should  notify  the 
fireman  so  that  the  oil  valve  may  be  opened 
before  the  throttle,  and  the  fire  burning  before 
any  cold  air  is  drawn  into  the  fire  box  by  the 
exhaust.  In  opening  the  valve  the  flow  of  oil 
should  be  gradually  increased  as  the  engineer 
increases  the  working  of  the  engine.  If  this  rule 
is  carried  out  it  will  in  a  great  measure  prevent 
leaky  flues,  crown  and  stay  bolts.  Fire  boxes  can 
be  easily  damaged  by  over-firing. 

In  a  coal  burner  if  an  engine  drops  back  five 
or  ten  pounds  pressure  it  takes  some  little  time 
to  regain  it;  in  an  oil  burner  the  fire  can  be 
crowded  so  as  to  bring  it  up  almost  instantly 
and  thereby  ove'rheat  the  plates  and  cause  dam- 
age to  the  fire  box.  The  practice  should  be  to 
consume  about  as  much  time  in  bringing  up 
steam  on  an  oil  burner  as  would  be  taken  with  a 
coal  burner;  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised 
in  this  particular.  It  is  possible  to  melt  the  riv- 
ets off  the  inside  of  an  oil  burner  fire  box  by 
over-firing. 

In  drifting  down  long  grades,  it  is  preferable 
to  keep  the  fire  burning  a  little  rather  than  to 
shut  it  off  entirely  to  prevent  chilling  of  the  fire 
box,  adjusting  the  dampers  to  suit  a  light  fire. 
The  water  can  be  carried  in  such  a  way  ap- 
proaching such  points  as  will  admit  of  working 
the  injector  occasionally  to  prevent  popping  off. 


644  EOW  OIL  IS  USED 

The  use  of  the  blower  should  be  restricted  all 
possible.  It  tends  to  make  the  fire  box  leak.  If 
the  blower  is  used  at  all  it  should  be  used  very 
lightly,  simply  enough  to  cause  a  draught. 

Some  troubles  have  been  encountered  on  ac- 
count of  waste  getting  into  the  oil  tank;  these 
are  caused  by  carelessness  on  the  part  of  Host- 
lers and  Helpers  in  measuring  the  oil  and  wiping 
the  measuring  stick  off  with  waste.  Waste 
should  therefore  not  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Do  not  approach  the  man  hole  or  vent  holes  of 
a  tank  closer  than  ten  feet  with  a  lighted  torch 
or  lantern. 

Do  not  take  a  lighted  torch  or  lantern  to  a  man 
hole  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  oil  in  the  tank  ; 
this  should  be  done  by  the  insertion  of  a  stick  or 
rod  and  the  same  carried  to  the  light  to  ascer- 
tain the  number  of  inches  of  oil  shown  on  the 
stick  or  rod. 

Do  not,  when  making  repairs  to,  or  inspection 
of,  an  empty  tank,  place  a  lighted  lamp  or  torch 
inside  of  the  same  before  it  has  been  thoroughly 
steamed  and  washed  out,  as  gas  will  accumulate 
in  ah  empty  tank  not  so  steamed  and  washed 
out,  and  explosion  is  liable.  Employes  are  pos- 
itively prohibited  from  entering  tanks  having 
contained  crude  oil,  until  tlie  instructions  to 
thoroughly  steam  and  wash  them  out  have  been 
complied  with. 

Do  not,  in  firing  up,  apply  the  atomizer  and 
oil  before  putting  in  the  lighted  waste,  as  gas 
may  accumulate  in  the  fire  box  and  thus  cause 
an  explosion. 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  645 

In  starting  up  or  stopping,  the  engineer  must 
always  notify  the  fireman,  as  the  starting  or 
shutting  off  of  fire  must  in  all  cases  precede  the 
opening  and  shutting  off  of  the  engine. 

Do  not  force  the  firing.  Bring  the  fire  box 
temperature  up  gradually.  If  pressure  falls  back 
five  or  ten  pounds,  restore  the  maximum  pressure 
by  gradual  degrees.  Forced  firing  \vill  overheat 
the  plates,  burn  off  rivet  heads,  and  cause  leaks. 

In  sanding  the  flues  to  clean  out  the  accumu- 
lations of  soot  and  gum,  drop  the  lever  to  half 
stroke  aud  use  full  throttle  for  a  few  turns,  while 
the  sand  is  being  injected. 

Successful  combustion  of  petroleum  is  smoke- 
less. 

An  accurate  combination  of  steam  and  oil  in 
the  atomizer  and  air  admission  is  necessary  to 
thorough  combustion.  To  this  end  the  steam 
and  oil  valves  and  dampers  must  be  adjusted 
closely. 

As  all  petroleum  contains  a  greater  or  less  per 
ceut  of  volatile  gases,  w^iich  are  given  off  at  low 
temperatures,  lighted  torches,  lamps  or  lantern? 
should  never  be  taken  in  or  near  tanks  contain- 
ing oil. 

The  following  rules  are  enforced  by  another 
Company,  viz : 

Before  departure,  see  that  the  oil  tanks  are 
full,  the  oil  heater  in  operation  and  the  oil  heated 
to  a  proper  temperature  as  soon  as  possible;  also 


646  EOW  OIL  IS  USED 

that  the  fire  is  burning,  that  no  oil  is  dropping  or 
lying  in  the  outer  pan,  that  no  brick  or  other  ob- 
struction to  the  free  passage  of  oil  from  the 
burner  to  the  front  wall  is  lying  on  the  bottom 
of  the  inner  pan,  and  that  the  sand  buckets  are 
full. 

Starting  the  Fire. — When  the  firebox  is  below 
igniting  point,  which  is  a  dull  red,  open  the 
dampers,  start  the  blower  and  atomizer  medium 
hard,  throw  a  piece  of  saturated 'oily  waste,  after 
lighting  same,  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  inner  pan, 
close  and  fasten  the  firebox  door,  then  turn  on 
the  oil  very  light,  and  see  if  it  ignites  at  once.  If 
not,  shut  off  the  oil  at  once,  and  see  if  the  waste 
is  burning.  When  the  oil  has  ignited,  reduce  the 
blower  and  atomizer  to  very  light  feed;  also  re- 
duce the  oil  flow  until  the  stack  becomes  almost 
clear.  In  starting  the  fire  by  the  hot  firebox,  no 
w^aste  is  used. 

Temperature  of  Oil. — Kern  River  or  thick  oil 
should  be  heated  to  from  150  to  170  degrees,  Mc- 
Kittrick  or  thin  oil  to  from  100  to  120  degrees; 
the  temperature  should  be  taken  from  the  meas- 
uring rod  suspended  in  the  forward  tank.  Vents 
on  the  top  of  the  oil  tanks  should  be  kept  open  at 
all  times,  except  when  tanks  are  very  full  and 
oil  is  liable  to  splash  out,  when  they  may  be  kept 
closed  until  the  oil  is  reduced  from  5  to  7  inches 
in  the  tanks,  care  being  taken  not  to  have  any 
lights  in  the  hands  when  they  are  first  opened 
after  having  been  closed  any  length  of  time. 

Heating  Oil  by  Direct  Steam  Application. — 
Put  the  heater  on  strong  until  the  oil  has  reached 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  647 

the  proper  temperature,  then  close  it  off  and  give 
it  another  application.  To  keep  the  heater  on 
light  and  constant  might  produce  water  enough 
in  the  oil  to  become  objectionable. 

Heating  by  the  Coil  in  Tank. — Open  cock  on 
boiler  head  just  sufficient  to  produce  steam  water 
at  drain  cock  under  tank.  Superheater  should 
be  used  constantly  when  weather  is  anyway 
chilly.  Keep  drain  cock  to  superheater  open  just 
sufficient  to  keep  cylinder  dry. 

Starting  Train  or  Engine. — The  engine  should 
not  be  started  until  the  fireman  is  at  the  fir- 
ing valve.  Remember  that  the  care  of  the  fire 
box  is  as  important  as  keeping  up  steam  or  mak- 
ing time.  Start  the  engine  carefully,  so,  if  pos- 
sible, not  to  slip  engine.  Open  the  firing  valve 
sufficiently  to  make  sure  that  the  action  of  the 
exhaust  will  not  put  out  the  fire,  but  not  enough 
to  make  a  great  volume  of  black  smoke.  In- 
crease the  atomizer  and  oil  gradually  until  full 
speed  is  attained,  keeping  just  on  the  verge  of 
black  smoke.  When  the  engine  is  hooked  up, 
the  valves  governing  the  admission  of  oil  should 
be  regulated  according  to  amount  required.  It  is 
well  to  use  the  blower  about  one-half  turn  while 
starting,  as  this  will  help  to  consume  the  smoke 
between  exhausts  and  keep  the  engine  hot. 

Black  Smoke. — Never  make  an  excessively 
heavy  smoke,  as  it  only  fills  the  flues  with  soot. 
Soot  is  a  great  non-conductor  of  heat  and  pro- 
duces no  heat  in  itself,  therefore  strive  to  keep  the 
stack  clear  at  all  times  except  when  starting. 

Sanding  Flues. — Sand  as  frequently  as  re- 
quired, according  to  the  amount  of  smoke  made. 


64  S  EOW  OIL  IS  USED 

If  the  engine  has  to  be  smoked  anyway  hard, 
sand  every  10  or  12  miles,  but  if  the  stack  is  kept 
clear,  sand  only  every  30  to  50  miles.  If  any 
amount  of  switching  is  done  at  a  station,  sand 
immediately  after  leaving  that  station.  How  to 
sand:  Having  attained  a  fair  rate  of  speed  use 
about  one  quart  of  sand,  close  all  the  dampers, 
put  the  reverse  lever  near  full  stroke,  open  the 
throttle  wide  and  allow  the  sand  to  be  drawn 
from  the  funnel  in  a  thin  stream.  Going  into  a 
station  where  stops  are  to  be  made  great  care 
should  be  exercised  not  to  cut  the  oil  supply  too 
low  before  the  throttle  is  closed. 

Any  draft  through  the  fire  box  has  a  tendency 
to  put  the  fire  out;  the  stronger  the  draft  the 
stronger  must  be  the  oil  supply.  Consequently 
there  is  great  danger  of  the  fire  being  put  en- 
tirely out  befoi'e  the  throttle  is  closed.  When  the 
throttle  is  closed  and  oil  reduced,  the  atomizer 
should  be  cut  down  at  once,  so  that  it  will  just 
keep  the  oil  from  dropping  onto  the  bottom  of  the 
inner  pan,  otherwise  the  intense  heat  of  the  fire 
box  will  be  blown  down  through  the  air  inlet 
burning  the  bottoms  of  the  pans. 

Never  allow  the  fire  to  be  put  entirely  out,  ex- 
cept when  giving  up  the  engine'at  the  end  of  a 
run  or  when  all  hands  are  going  away  from  the 
engine.  Then  it  must  be  put  out.  To  put  out 
fire:  First  close  the  stop-cock  under  the  tank, 
allow  the  oil  to  all  be  drawn  from  the  pipe  and 
burner,  then  close  the  firing  valve,  atomizer  and 
all  dampers.  To  blow  obstruction  from  oil  line: 
Close  the  firing  valve,  open   the  cock   between 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  649 

the  heater  line  and  the  oil  line,  close  the 
heater  line  and  turn  the  cock  on  boiler  head  to 
the  heater  line  on  full.  This  will  blow  all  ob- 
structions back  into  the  tank.  This  arrange- 
ment may  be  used  to  heat  the  oil  in  the  tank 
in  case  of  failure  of  the  coil  heater.  If  any 
brick  from  the  walls  or  arches  in  the  fire  box 
should  fall  in  front  of  the  burner,  it  must  be 
removed  at  once  or  pushed  to  the  extreme  fi'ont 
of  the  tire  box.  Blue  gas  issuing  from  the  stack 
is  an  indication  that  the  fire  is  out  or  very  nearly 
so;  it  is  very  objectionable  and  should  be  avoided 
if  possible,  especially  on  passenger  trains. 

Burners  must  be  adjusted  so  that  the  oil  will 
strike  about  the  middle  of  the  front  wall.  If  the 
oil  drops  on  the  bottom  of  pan,  black  smoke  and 
poor  steam  will  be  the  result.  Burners  are  liable 
to  clog  up  with  sand  that  is  in  the  oil  and  by 
pieces  of  w^aste  that  are  sucked  up  through  the 
air  inlet.  If  trouble  is  found  with  it,  the  inner 
case  or  steam  jet  can  be  taken  out  in  most  cases 
without  disturbing  the  outer  case  or  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  burner.  In  this  manner  any  obstruc- 
tion or  defect  may  be  readily  located  and  reme- 
died. The  blower  should  never  be  used  stronger 
than  just  sufficient  to  clear  the  stack  of  black 
smoke.  Any  more  is  only  a  waste  of  fuel  and 
a  delay,  as  too  strong  a  draft  through  a  fire  box 
for  the  amount  of  oil  admitted  only  absorbs  heat 
and  cools  instead  of  heating  the  fire  box.  At  wa- 
ter tanks,  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  in- 
jector on  all  the  time  the  train  is  standing,  the 
oil  supply  should  be  left  on  a  little  heavy  and  the 


650  HOW  OIL  IS  UBSD 

blower  on  lightly.  This  will  insure  a  full  head 
of  steam  when  ready  to  start.  As  the  oil  pene- 
trates the  arch  brick  and  causes  them  to  crumble 
away  very  fast,  it  is  important  to  examine  the  fire 
box  frequently  to  know  its  condition.  As  steam 
pressure  increases  on  the  boiler,  the  atomizer 
and  blower  will  work  stronger  unless  they  are 
cut  down.  Be  governed  accordingly.  Also  re- 
member that  black  smoke  is  very  detrimental  to 
steam  generating  and  that  the  more  that  is  made, 
the  more  it  becomes  necessary  to  make. 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


651 


THE    BALDWIN    OIL    BURNING    LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  devices 
used  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  many 
of  whose  oil  burning  locomotives  are  in  use  both 
in  the  United  States  and  Rirssia. 

The  burner,  shown  in  figure  20,  is  rectangular 
in  cross -section,  ^xi\h.  two  separated  ports  or 
chambers,  (one  above    the   other),   running   its 


FIGURE  20. 
Details  of  "Baldwia"  Oil  Baroer. 


C52  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

entire  length.  Into  tLe  npper  of  these  ports  the 
oil  from  the  reservoir  is  admitted  through  suit- 
al)le  pipes.  The  flow  of  oil  is  contrcdled  Ly  a 
plug  cock  in  the  feed  i:)ipe,  provided  with  an 
operating  handle  jdaccd  in  the  eah  within  easy 
reach  of  the  tirennm.  Steam  is  admitted  to  the 
lower  port  of  the  burner  through  a^pipe  con- 
nected to  the  boiler  in  such  a  manner  as  at  all 
times  to  insure  the  introduction  of  dry  steam. 
The  valve  controlling  the  admission  of  steam  is 
also  conveniently  located  in  the  cab  close  to  the 
fireman's  seat.  A  free  outlet  is  allowed  for  the 
oil  at  the  nose  of  the  burner ;  the  steam  outlet, 
however,  is  contracted  at  this  point  by  an  adjust- 
able plate  which  partially  closes  the  port,  and 
gives  a  thin,  wide  aperture  for  the  exit  of  the 
steam.  This  arrangement  tends  to  wire-draw  the 
steam  and.  increase  its  velocity  at  the  point  of  con- 
tact with  the  oil,  giving  a  better  atomizing  effect. 
A  permanent  adjustment  of  the  plate  can  be 
made  for  each  burner  after  the  requirements  of 
service  are  ascertained.  The  moving  of  the  plate 
would  not  then  be  required  except  for  cleaning 
purposes.  The  oil,  as  it  j)^^^^s  through  the 
tjurner,  is  heated  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  effect 
of  the  steam  in  the  lower  portion,  and  flows  freely 
in  a  thin  layer  over  the  orifice.  It  is  here  caught 
by  the  jet  of  steam  issuing  from  the  lower  port, 
and  is  completely  broken  up  and  atomized  at  the 
point  of  igniting.  The  oil  is  carried  into  the 
fire  box  in  the  form  of  vapor,  where  it  is  mingled 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oxygen  fi-om  the 
incoming  air  to  insure  as  near  as  possible  perfect 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


653 


combustion.  For  the  size  of  the  burner  it  is  com- 
puted that  one  inch  in  ^vidth  is  suitable  for  one 
hundred  inches  of  cylinder  area.  The  proper 
width  of  burner  for  any  locomotive  may  there- 
fore be  obtained  by  the  following  formula: 


B=C2  X  .7854,  in  which 

1()0 
B=width  of  burner  in  inches. 
(J=dianietcr  of  cylinder  in  inches. 


The  oil  pipe  leading  to  the  burner  should  be 
made  of  ample  size  to  insure  a  full  supply,  as  it 
is  essential  that  a  regular  flow  be  maintained; 
a  small  pipe  would  be  found  inadequate  wdth 
oil  having  a  sluggish  tendency.  Any  interfer- 
ence with  the  flow,  other  than  that  interposed  by 
the  feed  cock,  causes  a  loss  of  efficiency. 

At  times,  especially  when  the  locomotive  is 
standing  still  at  stations  or  when  drifting  down 
grade,  it  is  desirable  to  allow  only  a  small  sup- 
ply of  oil  to  enter  the  burner.  To  accomplish 
this,  the  feed  cock,  Figure  21,  is  used.  The 
passageway  through  the  plug  of  this  cock,  which 
regulates  the  supply  of  oil,  is  made  square,  as 
shown  in  the  cross -section.    As  the  plug  is  turned 


FIGURE  21. 
Details  of  "Baldwin"  Feed  Cock. 


654  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

to  cut  off  the  flow,  the  opening  retains  its  angu- 
lar form  and  a  finer  feed  adjustment  is  attained 
tlian  is  possible  with  a  cock  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion, where  the  hole  in  the  plug  is  circular  in 
form;  it  is  also  less  liable  under  such  circum- 
stances to  become  clogged  by  refuse  in  the  oil. 

With  a  fire  box  such  as  is  ordinarily  used  for 
burning  coal,  the  changes  necessary  to  adapt  it 
for  burning  oil  are  easily  accomplished.  The 
general  arrangement  of  a  fire  box  of  this  descrip- 
tion is  shown  in  Figure  22.  The  burner  is  placed 
below  the  mud-ring  at  the  back  and  on  a  line 
with  the  center  of  the  boiler,  and  it  is  pointed 
upward  at  a  slight  angle  to  allow  the  spray  to 
enter  the  fire  box.  A  fire  brick  arch  at  the  fi-ont 
of  the  fire  box  protects  the  tubes  and  gives 
direction  to  the  heated  gases,  to  insure  their 
mingling  with  the  incoming  air.  The  throat 
sheet  below  the  arch  is  protected  w4th  a  wall  of 
fire  brick,  and  a  layer  of  the  same  material  is 
placed  on  the  grate-bars  (or  equivalent  supports), 
which  extends  back  from  the  front  wall  covering 
about  half  the  bottom  area  of  the  furnace.  A 
fire  brick  hearth  is  placed  under  the  burner  to 
catch  any  oil  which  may  drop  from  it.  A  course 
of  brick  is  also  placed  on  each  side,  sufficiently 
high  to  protect  the  side  sheets  of  the  furnace 
from  excessive  heat.  A  device  correspondent  to 
the  ash-pan  of  an  ordinary  locomotive  is  fitted 
with  a  damper,  preferably  at  the  back,  to  govern 
the  admission  of  air.  This  damper  should  be 
made  as  large  as  possible,  with  heavy  frame,  and 
arranged   to   close    perfectly    air-tight.     Heavy 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


655 


656  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

operating  rods  should  be  provided  in  order  to 
withstand  rough  usage.  The  proper  admission 
of  air  is  an  important  feature,  and  the  means  for 
regulating  it  should  ])e  carefully  adjusted  to  give 
a  sufficient  supply  Avhen  needed  for  comhustion, 
and  on  the  other  hand,  to  entirely  stop  the  sup- 
ply and  avoid  the  loss  of  heat  which  would  1)6 
occasioned  by  a  circulation  of  cold  air  through 
the  lire  box  and  tubes  when  the  oil  supply  is  cut 
off.  A  plate  with  a  convenient  sight  hole  may 
take  the  place  of  the  fire  door,  or  the  fire  door 
may  be  retained,  care  being  taken  that  the  joints 
are  perfectly  air-tight;  in  either  case  a  protection 
of  fire  brick  should  be  provided  for  the  inner  sur- 
face to  avoid  the  liability  of  warj^ing  the  metal. 

Boilers  fitted  with  the  Vanderbilt  type  of  fire 
box  have  shown  excellent  results  in  burning  fuel 
oil.  This  fire  box,  as  is  well  known,  is  circular 
in  cross -section,  being  rolled  in  the  form  of  a 
large  corrugated  tube,  and  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  the  class  of  fuel  under  consideration. 

The  arrangement  of  the  fire  brick  used  in  the 
Vanderbilt  type  of  fire  box  is  shown  in  Figure  23. 
It  is  generally  similar  in  arrangement  to  that 
already  described,  the  only  variations  being  those 
suggested  by  the  structural  changes  in  the  boiler. 
The  burner  is  introduced  through  the  lined  cas- 
ing forming  the  back  head  of  the  boiler,  and  is 
located  a  short  distance  above  the  bottom  of  the 
fire  box.  The  corrugated  sheet  forming  the  fire 
box  is  protected  at  the  l)ottom  and  a  portion  of 
the  sides  by  a  lining  of  fire  brick.  The  front 
wall  and  arch  are  placed  at  a  suitable  distance 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


657 


658  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

back  of  the  tube  sheet,  to  allow  an  unobstructed 
entrance  to  all  the  tubes  by  the  heated  gases, 
forming  also  a  combustion  chamber  at  the  front 
of  the  furnace. 

In  burning  oil,  the  combustion  being  more  per- 
fect than  in  l»urning  coal,  the  heat  generated  in 
the  fire  l)ox  will  be  greater.  Care  should  there- 
fore be  taken  in  setting  the  fire  brick  not  to 
choke  the  passage  between  the  upper  portion  of 
the  arch  and  the  crown  sheet.  If  this  area  is 
insufiicient,  the  products  of  combustion  will 
impinge  upon  the  crown  sheet,  and  the  intense 
heat  generated  at  this  point  is  liable  to  be  detri- 
mental to  the  sheet. 

The  forced  draft  occasioned  by  the  exhaust 
should  be  so  regulated  as  to  be  equally  distributed 
through  all  the  tubes.  This  can  be  accomplished 
by  a  careful  adjustment  of  the  "petticoat  pipe"  and 
deflecting  plate.  If  a  collection  of  soot  aj^pears 
on  the  sheet  around  some  of  the  tubes,  it  will 
indicate  that  the  draft  through  these  tubes  is  not 
sufficient,  and  a  readjustment  of  the  draft  rig- 
ging should  be  made  until  no  such  indications 
are  perceptible.  It  is  suggested  that  after  the 
draft  rigging  in  the  smoke -box  has  been  satisfac- 
torily adjusted,  it  be  rigidly  attached  to  the  boilef 
ir^  such  a  manner  as  to  be  readily  removed  and 
replaced  without  liability  of  derangement. 

As  the  weight  of  oil  used  by  a  locomotive  for 
a  given  distance  is  about  one-half  the  weight  and 
bulk  of  coal  for  the  same  distance,  it  is  obvious 
that  a  saving  is  made  in  the  dead  weight  hauled, 
or  with  the  same  weight,  fuel  for  a  much  longer 


FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  659 

run  may  be  carried.  In  locomotives  without  ten- 
ders it  is  often  difficult  to  arrange  for  an  ade- 
quate supply  of  coal  without  encroaching  upon 
space  required  for  other  purposes.  This  diffi- 
culty is  largely  overcome  when  oil  fuel  is  used, 
as  the  reservoirs  can  be  located  where  it  would 
be  impracticable  to  place  a  coal  bunker,  and  in 
this  way  room  for  a  sufficient  supply  of  fuel  is 
easily  obtained. 

The  tender  tank  of  an  oil -burning  locomotive 
is  usually  constructed  with  two  compartments, 
the  upj)er  being  used  as  a  reservoir  for  the  oil 
and  the  lower  for  water.  The  partition  which 
separates  these  compartments,  and  which  forms 
the  bottom  of  the  oil  reservoir  is  preferably 
inclined  toward  the  front,  to  allow  the  oil  to  flow 
by  gravity  to  the  feed  outlet.  In  cold  climates  a 
coil  of  steam  pipe  may  be  placed  in  the  reservoir 
around  this  outlet,  in  order  to  rarefy  the  oil  and 
insure  an  even  and  continuous  flow. 


660  HOW  OIL  IS  USED 

ECONOMIC    YALFE    OF    OIL    AS    FFEL. 

"Fuel  oil  can  be  used  in  almost  any  form  of 
firebox,  the  best  location  for  the  burner  being 
just  below  the  mud  ring,  spraying  U2:)ward  into 
the  firebox.  In  some  recent  experiments  with  oil 
of  eighty-four  degrees  gravity,  140  degrees  flash 
and  190  degrees  fire  test,  in  which  the  boiler  had 
twenty -seven  square  feet  grate  area  and  2135 
square  feet  of  heating  surface  (eight  per  cent 
being  in  the  firebox),  it  was  found  that  there 
were  about  thirty -nine  pounds  of  oil  burned  per 
square  foot  of  grate  area,  and  al)Out  .45  pounds 
per  square  foot  of  heating  surface  per  hour,  the 
equivalei^t  evaporation  from  and  at  212  degrees 
being  about  twelve  and  one -half  pounds  of  water 
per  pound  of  oil.  It  was  also  computed  that 
there  should  be  about  one-third  inch  width  of 
burner  for  each  cubic  foot  of  cylinder  volume,  or 
width  of  burner  in  inches  e(]uals: 

Volume  of  both  cylinders  in  cnbic  feet 
3 

or  that  one  inch  width  of  burner  was  sufficient 
for  600  s<piare  feet  of  heating  surface. 

"In  the  foregoing  calculation,  the  figures  are 
based  on  single  expansion  engines  only.  in 
compound  locomotives  the  consumption  of  water 
will  be  ten  per  cent  and  the  fuel  about  twenty 
per  cent  less  than  in  single- expansion  engines. 
By  the  above  formula,  in  calculating  the  width 
of  burner  for  compound  engines,  the  volume  of 
only  the  high-pressure  cylinder  or  cylinders 
should  be  considered." 


POR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES.  661 

To  determine  the  value  of  oil,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  the  evaporative  power  of  the  boiler  for 
each  pound  of  fuel  burned,  which  depends  greatly 
upon  the  ratio  of  heating  surface  to  grate  surface, 
and  the  volume  consumed  in  a  given  time. 
These  conditions  do  not  seem  to  aifect  the  con- 
sumption of  oil,  the  evaporation  being  about  the 
same  per  pound  of  oil  for  all  rates  of  combustion, 
it  being  impossible  to  consume  the  oil  without  a 
proper  supply  of  air,  and,  as  no  smoke  is  made, 
no  unconsumed  fuel  goes  out  of  the  stack,  as  is 
the  case  with  soft  coal.  The  following  formula, 
based  on  experiments  made  by  the  Baldwin 
Locomotive  Works,  with  a  locomotive  having 
compound  cylinders,  will  give  an  approximate 
idea  of  the  value  of  oil  fuel  as  compared  with 
coal : 

Cost  of  coal  per  ton  -\-  cost  of  handling  (say  50  cents)  x  10.7  x  7 
2000  X  evaporative  power  of  coal 

equals  price  per  gallon  at  which  oil  will  be  the 
equivalent  of  coal. 

It  must  be  remembered  in  these  computations 
that  the  cost  of  both  oil  and  coal  is  considered  at 
the  place  where  they  are  delivered  to  the  engine, 
and  not  at  the  place  where  they  are  purchased 
by  the  railroad  company. 

The  following  table  gives  the  weight  and 
volume  of  crude  petroleum  based  on  a  specific 
gravity  of  .91,  which  is  about  the  average  of  the 
Texas  oil,  as  well  as  that  received  from  South 
America : 


662 


HOW  OIL  IS  USED 


WEIGHT    AND    VOLUME     OF     CRUDE     PETROLEUM. 


Pound. 

U.S.  Liquid, 
Gal. 

Barrel. 

Gross  Ton. 

1 
7.6 

319.2 
2240. 

.13158 
1. 
.   42. 
294.72 

.0031328 
.02381 

1. 

7.017 

.0004464 
.003393 
.1425 
1. 

For  convenience  in  obtaining  correct  approxi- 
mate weights  of  petroleum  oil,  the  following 
gravity  conversion  table  can  be  used: 


n 

(S  >*     * 

^ 

CC   . 

S> 

r. 

» 

IS  >' 

r^ 

2a 

(U  03 

'"■3 

^0 

0  a 
u  a 

c» 

a 

OM 

c^ 

I-) 

Q« 

Ow 

)-i 

10 

1.0000 

8.33 

32 

8641 

7.20 

54 

.7608 

6.34 

11 

.9929 

8.27 

33 

.8588 

7.15 

55 

.7567 

6.30 

12 

.9859 

8.21 

34 

.8536 

7.11 

56 

.7526 

6.27 

13 

.9790 

8.16 

35 

.8484 

7.07 

57 

.7486 

6.24 

14 

.9722 

8.10 

36 

.8433 

7.03 

58 

.7446 

6.20 

15 

.9655 

8.04 

37 

.8383 

6.98 

59 

.7407 

6.17 

16 

.9589 

7.99 

38 

.8333 

6.94 

60 

.7368 

6.14 

17 

.9523 

7  93 

39 

.8284 

6.90 

61 

.7329 

6.11 

18 

.9459 

7.88 

40 

.8235 

6.86 

62 

.7290 

6.07 

19 

.9395 

7.83 

41 

.8187 

6.82 

63 

.7253 

6.04 

20 

.9333 

7.78 

42 

.8139 

6.78 

64 

.7216 

6.01 

21 

.9271 

7.72 

43 

.8092 

6.74 

65 

.7179 

5.98 

22 

.9210 

7.67 

44 

.8045 

6.70 

66 

.7142 

5.95 

23 

.9150 

7.62 

45 

.8000 

6.66 

67 

.7106 

5.92 

24 

.9090 

7.57 

46 

.7954 

6.63 

68 

.7070 

5.89 

25 

.9032 

7.53 

47 

.7909 

6.59 

69 

.7035 

5.86 

26 

.8974 

7.48 

48 

.7865 

6.55 

70 

.7000 

5.83 

27 

.8917 

7.43 

49 

.7821 

6.52 

75 

.6829 

5.69 

28 

.8860 

7.38 

50 

.7777 

6.48 

80 

.6666 

5.55 

29 

.8805 

7.34 

51 

.7734 

6.44 

85 

.6511 

5.42 

30 

.8750 

7.29 

52 

.7692 

6.41 

90 

.6363 

5.30 

31 

.8695 

7.24 

53 

.7650 

6.37 

95 

.6222 

5.18 

FOR  FUEL  ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


663 


TABLE    SHOWING    RELATIVE    ITEAT.   PRODFCING 
POWER    OF    OIL    AND    COAL.* 


Theoretical  Anthracite 

Theoretical  Bituminous 

tUrquhart's   Experiments 

Peninsular  Car  Co.  (1885) 

Elevated  R.  R.  New  York  (1887) 


Pounds 
Oil. 


Pounds 
Coal. 


1.61 

1.37 

1.756 

1.742 

1.785 


*  Prepared  by  Dr.  Charles  B.  Dudley,  Chemist,  Pennsylvania  R.  R.  in 
1888.    In  this  table  it  is  assumed  that: 

1  lb.  Anthracite  Coal  contains  90  per  cent  carbon. 
1  lb.  Bituminous    "  "  85        "  " 

and  5  per  cent  hydrogen. 
1  lb.  Oil  contains  86  per  cent  carbon  and  14  per 
cent  hydrogen. 
The  heat-producing  power  of  fhe  carbon  and  hydrogen  is  calculated  by 
means  of  the  well  known  heat  units  of  these  two  substances. 

t  Thomas  Urquhart,  Locomotive  Superintendent,  Grazi-Tsaritzin  Rail- 
way, Russia,  was  among  the  first  to  adapt  locomotives  to  the  use  of  oil. 
The  use  of  solid  fuel  on  this  line  was  entirely  abandoned  in  1SS5.  He 
designed  a  burner  which  was  one  of  the  first  to  utilize  a  jet  of  steam  to 
atomize  the  oil  as  it  enters  the  firebox  This  nictliod  has  been  generally 
adopted  in  the  construction  of  the  most  successful  burners  now  in  use. 


664 


HOW  OIL   IS  USED 


FOR  FUEL    ON  LOCOMOTIVES. 


665 


INDEX 

Page 

Admission 188 

Allan  Richardson  Balanced  Slide  Valve I'Jl 

lUus.  10  2 

Allan  Valve  Motion 230 

Illus.  2  31 

American  Balanced  Valve 196 

Illus.  190 

Arithmetic,   Rules  in ■. 133 

Arrangement  of  Brick  Work  for  Oil  Burning  Locomotives.  .Illus.  6G5 

Axle,  Driving,  Broken  Outside  the  Box Illus.  600 

Baker 'Valve' Gear 2  90 

Illus.  291,  293,  295,  296,  298,  299,  300,  301 

Baker  Valve  Gear,  Instructions  on  setting 2  97 

Baker  Valve  Gear,  Questions  and  Answers 310 

Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,   Rules  and  Data — Tractive  Power 

How  to  figure  what  she  will  pull 127 

Blocking  for  Broken  Driver  Springs .  .  .  .Illus.  609 

Boiler,   Longitudinal   Section   of  Locomotive:       Filled  with   Water 

Illus.  598 

Boilers,   carrying  water  in 109 

Broken  Hanger  Replaced  by  a  Chain Illus.  009 

Cab  Appliances.       Fuel  Oil 037 

Carrying  water  in  Boilers Effect  of  too  much 109 

Clearance 191 

Coal    Burning    Locomotives,    Baldwin,    Details    of    Fire-box    Brick 

Work  for  using  Coal Illus.  6  55 

Cole  Side  Header,   Superheater 163 

Combustion    ■ 48,  52 

Compound  Locomotives 323 

Classes  of  and  their  General  Construction,   Different  types.  .  3  39 

General  Description.    Comparison  with  Simple  Locomotives.  .  3  27 

Compounds,   Automatic 339 

Baldwin    Four-Cylinder 348,  364 

Accidents   to    360 

Combined  Starting  Valve  and  Drip  Cock Illus.  3  54 

Cross-Head Illus.  353 

Cylinder  Arrangement Illus.    349,  350 

Cylinder   Relief   Valve Illus.  358 

Direct  Valve   Motion  Without   Rocker  Arms Illus.  363 

Hollow  Steel  Piston Illus.  353 

Operation  of 356 

Piston   Valve    Illus.  352 

Repairs 359 

Showing    operation     of     Starting     Valve     and     Cylinder 

Cocks Illus.  357 

Steam    Distribution   with   Piston   Valve Illus.  351 

Valve  Bushing,  Showing  Method  of  Pressing  in.  .  .Illus.  359 

Baldwin  Two-Cylinder Illus.  3  04 

Accidents   to 870 

Engine  Working  Compound Illus.  3  07 

Simple Illus.  30  6 

Operating    Valve     Illus.  309 

Operation  of  the  intercepting  and  reduction  Valve.  ...  367 

Cole  Four-Cylinder.      Detail  of  Main  Frames .Illus.  493 

667 


GG8  INDEX. 


Page 

Half  Plan  of  Running  Gear  and  Valve  Motion.  .  .  .  Illus.  41):! 

Compounds.       Cole  Four-Cylinder  High  Pressure  rylinders.  .  Illus.  4!>4 

Rear  View  and  Cross  Section I  Huh.  492 

Side   Elevation Illus.  4!)1 

Ten    Inch   Crank   Axle Illus.  4'.»r> 

Convertible    ;{4() 

De   CJIehn    Four-Cylinder   Balanced 4!>(> 

Dickson 4.'>r> 

Illus.  4r>'(; 

Accidents    to    4r>il 

Cross  Section  through   Ueceiver Illus.  457 

Ktarting  Valve  in  I'osition,   working  ("ompouml  .  .  .  Illus.  458 
Compounds — 

Pour-Cylinder  Balanced  Locomotive ' 4C.') 

Cole 4(i7.  488 

Illus.  466 

De  Glehn 4  07 

Illus.  466 

Vaudain 466,  473 

Illus.  466 

Schenectady     371 

Illus.  374 

Changing  from  compound  to  simple 393 

Convertible.       Southern    Pacific    Illus.  3  82 

Design    of    189  2 37  2 

Intercepting  Valve Illus.  373 

With  Southern  Pacific  Modification 383 

Design   lS9(i ' 384 

Illus.  385 

Accidents   to    397 

Engine   Working   Compound Illus.  387 

Simple Illus.  3S6 

Intercepting  Valve  Closed.    Engine  Working  Simple  Illus.  377 

Open    Illus.  37  8 

Engine  Working  Compound Illus.  376 

Intercepting  Valve   Passages Illus.  389 

Southern    Pacific    Modifications,    design    of    1892,    Acci- 
dents to 396 

Compounds,   Schenectady,  Starting  as  Automatic  Compound 393 

The  Automatic  Compound  of   1892,   Accidents  to 393 

To  start  simple 391 

Type,  Original 371 

Working  Compound »...*...  .■)92 

Strictly  Plain 339 

Compression     190 

Counter-Balance     334 

Counterbalancing Illus.  479 

Crank    Axle    Illus.  479 

Showing  Banding Illus.  487 

Crosshead,  Method  of  Blocking Illus.  606 

Crown    Stays Illus.  4  79 

Crude  Petroleum,  Weight  and  Volume  of 062 

Cut-off 189 

Cylinder  and   Appurtenances Illus.  46 

Steam  Chest Illus.  4S1.  484,  485 

Decimal   Equivalents 137 

"Dont's"  for  Engineers  and  Firemen 139 

Driving  Boxes Importance  of  proper  method   of  packing 113 

Drumming 69 

Eccentrics,   position  of  Lap  and   Lead 8  7 

Straps  and  Reversing  Gear Illus.  0  03 

Emergency,  being  prepared  for 3  0 

Emerson    Superheater 108 


INDEX.  669 

Page 

Engineers     , 13 

and  Firemen,  Duties  and  Responsibilities  of 27 

Two  kinds  of 4  9 

Duties  of 32 

Examination  of 18 

Instruction   of 16 

Engine  not  steaming 72 

Examinations   for   Firemen,    Progressive — Questions   and    Answers  497 

Exhaust  Pipes Illus.  596 

Expansion 190 

Feed    Cock,    Baldwin,    Details   of.  .^ Illus.  C53 

Firebox  Equipment Fuel  Oil Illus.  629 

Showing  5-inch  Mud  ring Illus.  4. Si) 

Fire  Brick,   Details  of.       Fuel   Oil Illus.  630 

Firemen,   Examinations,   Questions  and   answers   for 497 

Air  Brake,  First  Series 513 

Second  Series 525 

Air   Pump 577 

B  3  Equipment 589 

Engineer's  Brake  and  Equalizing  Discharge  Valve.  .  .  .  580 

L,  T  Equipment 588 

Miscellaneous 589 

New  York  Air  Brake,  Duplex  Air  Pump 585 

Pump  Governor 575 

Triple   Valve    584 

Compound  Locomotives 5i58 

Electric  Headlight 570 

Federal  Regulations  for  Inspection  of  Locomotive  Boilers.  .  .  594 

Federal  Regulations  for  Safety  Appliances 595 

First  Series 503 

Lubrication 567 

Oil    Burning    Locomotives     527 

Second    Series 514 

Third    Series    536 

Firemen — First   duties   of 6  5 

Hints  on  firing 6  2 

Instruction   of 16 

Pointers  for 6  5 

Switching     6C 

Firing 4  7,  68 

Ash  Pan 60 

Blower     6  0 

Cleaning  ash  pan  and  fires 61 

Clinkers 60 

Close  of  run 61 

Dampers Use   of 5  8 

Different  Methods  of 49,  64 

Engine's  cylinder  too  large 49 

Grates 60 

Steam  pressure 6  0 

Flues.     Cleaning.      Sand  Funnel.      Fuel  Oil 637 

Foster  Locomotive   Superheater 172 

Front  end  arrangement 72 

Fuel  and  Combustion 50 

Fuel  Oil  Burner,   Details  of  "Booth" Illus.  632 

"Lundholm" Illus.  631 

Fuel  Oil,  Special  Adaptation  of  locomotives The  tender 618 

What  it  is  and  how  obtained .'  .  .  .  613 

Gooch  Valve   Motion    229 

Illus.  230 

Gravity  Conversion.       Table.       Fuel  Oil 66  2 

Hackworth   Valve    Motion 235 

Illus.  235 


670  lyOEX. 


Page 

Harrison  Dust  Guarils 126 

Heater  Hox.       Fuel   Oil 635 

Coll Fuel   Oil.       Santa   Fe Illua.  621 

Heat,  unit  of C!) 

Helmholtz   Mollification,   Valve  Gear 280 

Hose  and   Fittings.       Fuel   Oil Illus.  626 

Injector   Principle    Illus.  Oil 

Injectors,  enplneers  having  charge  of 30 

•Tacobs   Superheater 168 

Journal  Box,  Dust  Guards 126 

Journal   Boxes,   packing,   proper  care   of 113 

Journal  Boxes,  tools  for  packing 120 

Illus.   121,  122 

Joumala,  Lubrication  of 112 

Joy   Modification,   Valve   Gear 238 

Joy  Valve  Gear.  .  .• Illus.  230 

Lap 189 

Lead 100 

Link  Blocked  Up  for  Broken  Reach-Rod,  Link  Hanger,   Lifter,  or 

Saddle  Pin Illus.  602 

Motion,    Allan    222 

Illus.  221 

Stephenson     216 

Illus.  217 

Walschaert     224 

Illus.  223 

Locomotive,  American  Type Illus.  496 

and   tender.      Diagram    of Illus.  476 

Converting  a  coal  burner  to  an  oil  burner.       Piping  and  Brick 

Work  in   Locomotive 628 

Superheater 151 

The 13 

I>ubricating  Valves  and  Cylinders 104 

Lubrication,    Journals    112 

Lubricators.       Principle  of  working  and  defects 97 

Mallet,  Mr.  Anatole , 34  2 

Mallet  I^ocomotives 400 

American  Articulated  Compound 400 

Baldwin  Articulated   Compound 447 

Mudge-Slater   Spark   Arrester 185 

Illus.  185 

Observation,  faculty  of 31 

Oil  and  Coal,  Table  showing  Relative  Heat  Producing  Power  of.  .  C63 

Economic    value    of 660 

use  of.       Its  advantages  under  favorable  conditions.  .  .  616 

Burner,   Baldwin,   Details   of Illus.  651 

Details  of.       Santa  Fe Illus.  633 

Details    of.       Southern    Pacific Illus.  634 

Southern  Pacific Illus.  664 

Baldwin     651 

General    Arrangement    of.       Santa    Fe Illus.  627 

The  Burner  or  Atomizer B29 

Delivery,    Pipe    and    Fittings Illus.  62  5 

Fields     Illus.  615 

Heater   Box,    Details    of.       Santa    Fe Illus.  636 

How  used  for  fuel  on  locomotives 613 

Throttle  Valve   Handle,    Details  of.       Santa   Fe Illus.  639 

Packing  Driving  Boxes ^13 

Packing,   .Tournal   Boxes,   proper  care  of 113 

Piston,  High  Pressure Illus.  4S6 

Low  Pressure Illus.  4  86 

Speeds    in    Feet    per    Minute   at    Engine    Speed    of    Ten    Miles 

per  Hour Illus.  136 


INDEX.  G71 

Page 

Point   of   Compression 1<J0 

Progressive  Examinations  for  Firemen — Their  utility — Questions 

and   Answers  in   Detail 497 

Piston  Valve 2t)(i 

Illus.   20(),   207,   200,  210 

Pyrometer,    for   Superheater    Locomotives 170 

Illus.  177 

Reciprocating   Parts    3  3  4 

Release    190 

Repairing,  best  methods  of 30 

Revolutions  of  Driving  Wheels  Per  Mile Illus.  135 

Richardson  Balanced   Slide  Valve 191 

Richardson  Balanced  Slide  Valve Illus.    .  192 

Rods  and  Wedges 93 

etc.,   for   Mogul   or  Ten- Wheel   Engines Illus.  006 

lightness  of Illus.  477 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  Firing  and  Operating 04  5 

Heating  by  the  Coil   in  Tank 04  7 

Heating  Oil  by  Direct  Steam  Application 040 

Oil    Burning   Locomotives 041 

Sanding  Flues 047 

Starting    the    Fire 04  0 

Starting  Train   or  Engine 04  7 

Temperature  of  oil 04  0 

Safety  Valve,  Details  of.       Fuel  Oil Illus.  024 

Sand  Funnel  used  in  Cleaning  Flues.       Fuol   Oil Illus.  040 

Schmidt  Top  Header  Superheater 155 

Illus.   156,  157 

Seal 191 

Seconds  Per  Mile  in  Miles  Per  Hour 137 

Side   View    of   American    Bogie    (or   Pony)    Truck   supporting    for- 
ward end  of  locomotive Illus.  009 

Slide  Valve,  Richardson  Balanced Illus.  005 

Slide   Valve 188 

Slide   Valve,    Allan   Richardson : 193 

Slide  Valve,  Richardson  Balanced 191 

Smoke-box,  Draught  Appliances  in Illus.  596 

problem     70 

Southern  Valve  Gear 313 

Illus.   314,   310,   317,   319,  321,  322 

Southern  Valve  Gear,  Directions  for  Setting 315 

Spark  Arresters,    Mudge-Slater 185 

Springs  and  Equalizers Illus.  608 

Steam    41 

Chest 4  4 

Its  Application  to  the  Locomotive 41 

WTiere  it  goes  after  generated  and  how  distributed 7  6 

Superheaters    Illus.   15  4,  15  0,  15  7,  15  9,  10  0,  101,  104 

1C5,  106,  107,  109,  170.  173 

Cole    Side    Header 163 

Emerson    108 

Foster 172 

Jacobs 168 

Locomotive     151 

Schmidt   Top   Header .' 155 

Vaughan-Horsey  Comb  Header  Superheater 166 

Superheating,    Advantage   of 151 

Temperature  of  Steam  at  various  Boiler  Pressures 138 

Tender,  Details  of  Piping  on.       Fuel  Oil Illus.  623 

Equipment,   Details  of.   Southern   Pacltic Illus.  620 

Equipped  for  Oil  Burning.       Appearance  of Illus.  619 

Heater  coil   in.       Fuel   Oil 620 

Piping  and  Appliances  on.      Fuel  Oil 620 


672  INDEX. 

•  Page 

Three-Way  Cock,  Details  of.       Fuel  Oil IlluB.  63  8 

Tools  and  supplies,  economical  use  of 38 

Tools,  for  packing  journal  boxes 120 

Tractive  powi-r  of  four-cylinder  compound 131 

Two-cylinder  compound 130 

Train  resistance  or  locomotive  rating 131 

Travel 191 

Two  methods  of  Chaining  up  Truck  for  Broken  Wheel  or  Axle  Illus.  611 

Valves,  Admission  and  Exhaust  ofsteam  to  and  from 188 

Allan  Richardson   (Balanced) 193 

American    (Balanced) 196 

Plain    Slide 188 

Plain  Slide,  Dimensions,  Graphic  Delinitiuns  oi' Illus.  1S8 

Richardson  (Balanced) 191 

Valve   Gear,    Baker 2  90 

Valve   Gear,    Gooch 229 

Valve   Gear,    Helmholtz   Modification 286 

Valve  Gear,   Joy   Modification 238 

Valve  Gear,   Southern 313 

Valve   Gear,    Walschaert 240 

Valve  Gear,   Young 2  87 

Valve  Motion,   Allan 230 

Valve  Motion,   Hackworth 235 

Valves  and  valve  gears 188 

Valve,  Piston 2  06 

Vanderbilt    Type    of    Fire-box.       Details    of    Fire-box    Brick    Work 

for.       Fuel  Oil i Illus.  657 

Vaughan-Horsey  Comb  Header  Superheater 1C6 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear 240 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  Adjusting 248 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  General  Instructions  for 252 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear Illus.  255,  257,  265,  209,  271,  273 

Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  Questions  and  Answers  relative  to 25  4 

Walschaert    Valve    Gear,    Special    Instructions    for    erecting    and 

setting 2  53 

Wedges  and  Rods 93 

Wheel  Blocked  Up  for  Brokt-n  Tire  or  Axle Illus.  606 

Wheels,  Diameter,  Circumference  and  Revolutions  Per  Mile 138 

Main  and  Rear  Driving .Illus.  478 

Young  Valve  Gear 287 

Young  Valve  Gear Illus.  287 


KIRKMAN'S  SCIENCE  OF  RAILWAYS' 


Books  of  Especial  Interest  and  Value  to  ENGINEMEN, 
TRAINMEN  and  SHOPMEN 


For  the  convenience  of  those  interested  particularly  in  certain 
lines  of  work,  "Ivirkman's  Science  of  Railways"  is  di\'ided  and  sold 
in  groups,  as  follows: 

Special  prices  for  these  groups  are  made  to  railwaj'  employes, 
and  payment  may  be  made  on  the  monthly  instalment  plan,  if 
desired.  The  books  are  bound  in  half  leather,  and  are  a  handsome 
addition  to  any  library. 


GROUP  A,  MOTIVE  POWER  DEP'T. 

Locomotive  and  Motive  Power 

Department. 
Engineers'    and    Firemen's   Handbook. 
Locomotive  Appliances. 
Electricity  Applied  to  Railways. 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  L 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  n. 
Operating  Trains. 
Portfolio  of  Locomotives. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — ^Westinghouse. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — New  York. 

GROUP  B,  CAR  SHOPS 

Cars — Construction,  Handling  and 

Super\-ision. 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  L 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  n. 
Electricity  Applied  to  Railways. 
Portfolio  of  Cars. 

Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — Westinghouse. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — New  York. 

GROUP  C,  LOCOMOTIVE  SHOPS 

Engineers'  and  Firemen/s  Handbook. 

Locomotive  Appliances. 

Shops  and  Shop  Practice,  Vol.  I. 

Shops  and  Shop  Practice,  Vol.  II. 

Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  I. 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  II. 
Electricity  Applied  to  Railways. 
Portfolio  of  Locomotives. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — Westinghouse. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — New  York. 


GROUP  D,  ROUNDHOUSE 

Shops  and  Shop  Practice,  \'ol.  I. 
Shops  and  Shop  Practice,  Vol.  II. 
Electricity  Applied  to  Railways. 
Portfolio  of  Locomotives. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake-^Westinghouse. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — New  York. 

GROUP  E,  TRAINMEN 

Operating  Trains. 

Cars— Construction,  Handling  and 

Supervision. 
Air  Brake— Construction  and  Working. 

Vol.  I. 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  II. 
Electricity  Applied  to  Railways. 
Portfolio  of  Cars. 

PortfoUo  of  Air  Brake — Westinghouse. 
Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — New  York. 

GROUP  F,  FULL  SET 
Locomotive  and  Motive  Power 

Department. 
Engineers'  and  Firemen's  Handbook. 
Locomotive  Appliances. 
Electricity  Applied  to  Railways. 
Cars — Construction,  Handling  and 

Supers'ision. 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  I. 
Air  Brake — Construction  and  Working, 

Vol.  II. 
Operating  Trains. 
Shops  and  Shop  Practice,  Vol.  I. 
Shops  and  Shop  Practice,  Vol.  II. 
Portfolio  of  Locomotives. 
Portfolio  of  Cars. 

Portfolio  of  Air  Brake — Westinghouse. 
PortfoUo  of  Air  Brake — New  York. 


Full  Information  Furnished  on  Request 


CROPLEY  PHILLIPS  COMPANY,  Publishers 

CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


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